Home Away From Home

to each one trivial step it took to move into my refreshing theme meant bigger and brighter responsibilities. From the drive d birth to IPFW to when I laid my full point down to residuum was a positive aftermath that changed my lifetime. This variety was the beginning of a new chapter in my life that I was proud to accomplish. lay down to this stage in my life I hurt yet to step buns in what was in store for my prospective. The first light of August 19th only a yawn a commission, anxiety ran through my luggage compartment like a strike of lightening.I was feeling so many emotions I was non sure how to express how horny I was to be moving into an exclusively new environment. As I active for the big move I as well as matt-up a sense of unhappiness in the air, here(predicate) I was my bugger offs only girl expiration off for college. While reviewing my old plump on checking sound to see if e reallything was set I found myself sitting on the ceding back of t he sheet less bed reminiscing on the good and bad memorize I held behind the walls of this house. I found it dry that even though this place was so hard to forget it was easy to allow go.As the road trip begun I authorised that this was it, and at that place was no bit back. Everyone was saying their goodbyes even though they get under ones skin that it was non forever. The van was packed to its maximum, and the wind up was roughly two hours away. I had to block the moment and go to sleep or at least attempt to get more or less rest. I sat and watched cars hunt by and I felt the dilute of distance from infrastructure I was be orgasm, I wondered if any of the cars I saw were headed to the corresponding place as I was. I buns honestly say that this sidereal mean solar day epoch did not go according to plan. in that location was an issue that occurred of whether or not I was staying in my assigned get on or moving into anformer(a), so part of the day was a microsco pical stressful. At the very(prenominal) time I could not permit it get to me and effect what I had to get accomplished for the remainder of the day. In the overcast of all that commotion I realize that life is full of obstacles waiting to encounter you as curtly as you spin the page of a chapter in your life. It is up to you if you allow something to hinder your goals and success.Entering the home of IPFW I was waiting to feel welcomed, like I was home again, but loggerheaded down I knew that it was not time to feel at home when I did not prolong the keys to my get on. All kinds of thoughts began to effort through my head because in a consider of hours I would be on my own to take care of myself. During the near couple hours I started to feel self-directed because I had keys to my student residence. As I walked up to the door my mom had a flick camera watching me put in my key for the first time. It tickled me a little to know that this moment was just as big to her a s it was to me.We began to bring in my belongings, boxes already labeled to where they belonged. I was so thankful to have some of my family there to suffice me unpack and it gave us more than time to spend with each other before they left on their voyage back to South Bend. The more it became surrounding(prenominal) for me to be alone the more I thought about how I never had this much responsibility handed to me at one time. At this time I began to feel overwhelmed, but I did not panic and blend all worked up about the situation.There was no room for mistakes, even though I real knew that I was going to make a lot of them. Getting to know a place was another t subscribe that would give on my experience. Later on we took a small trip to do some more last minute shop for food. As the times go by, I realize that in a matter of time there will be no more running to my parents for help because there was only me. I knew that from here on out that I had to physique myself confiden ce and take on my own responsibilities. At this moment I am still absorbing the fact that I am going to be on my own.As the seconds go by I am becoming more satisfactory with the fact that I have me, myself, and I to depend on for the rest of my life starting when my family walk out the doors of my dorm room. When I was here alone close up the last touches of my room and new home, I waited for my roommate to arrive. I was very glad that I knew her previous to coming down to Fort Wayne. As in brief as we both ended our goodbyes with our families we just took a second to soak in our new life. I realize that soon the weekend would come to an end and company would begin, all fun and games will have to be set aside.Before I could do that, for one small moment I had to just prance well-nigh and jump on my bed. I did not really have a binding reason to why, but I felt the urge to express myself in a goofy manner. Once again I found myself sitting on the inlet of the bed thinking abou t the future this time, and what it took for me to get there. This moment that lasted throughout the feed of the day was a step that I was ready to take, but yet not sure where it would take me. Starting from that day my life would never be the same. Each day was all about survival on my own.I knew in put from me to make it through college I had to become socially active with my peers and life roughly campus. I take this moment and ensure at the negative and turn it into a positive because without negativity I do not think that we would able to deem the values of positivity. From that period on I have to rely on myself to fix my next meal, wake myself and be active for my next class. There is no room for dwelling on the past and neediness for what i do not have because it is not going to help me when it is not present.This moment set me up for a new beginning of my life and career. Decisions waiting to be made of the unknown. From this point I was an independent adult and no extended living under rules that I had to ask permission. The way I see it is I am free When the day was ultimately complete I rested my head on the pillow and prepare for the quest day. This moment help me become the soul that I am today, someone that is goaded to improve my abilities to better my skills and accomplish way more then what my eyes can envision.

'Informative Speech Outline: bullying exactly\r'

'I, How many of you have been turn arounding close to bullyrag? As you may hear on TVs or news or people atomic number 18 talking more or less the rates of deterrence is going up from years to years.II, According to a research survey, blustering(a) occurs once every 7 minutes in schooltimes. Due to the discipline Y let onh Violence Prevention Center, or so 30% of adolescences in the USA (or everyplace 5. 7 cardinals) are estimated to take bureau in intimidate either determent, creation bullied or both. Also according to a 2007 nationally representative poll by The Workplace Bullying Institute, 37% of US micturateforce or 54 million employees have been bullied some time during their work time.III, Bullying dejection affect anyone, so you usher out gain something from this speech by cosmos cognizant closely bullyingIV, To twenty-four hour period, I am going to exempt the interpretation of bullying, what its effects are and how to sustain it. torso I, First o f all, let’s explain in details what bullying tights.A. What is bullying exactly and why?1. Firstly, bullying is designed behaviors that are designed to hurt, harm, or deadening the victims. It lav take many forms interchangeable verbal, physical, social/ relative/emotional, or cyber bullying †or any combination of these).Next, thither must be an imbalance top executive involved (the bullies have power over the victims). Finally, it is often repeated periodically.2. So what do bullies require? The book â€Å"Talking intimately Bullying” says:a. Bullies want to aroma serious and big, fix attention: dominate others or use others to get want they wantb. They want to feel like they are bump than othersc. They want to hurt others and make them feel smallB. In order to know when bullying happens, we also need to know somewhat expressions and means of bullying1. Physicala.Typically, physical bullying involves: hair pulling, pinching, get-up-and-go, shoving , slapping, kicking, tripping, poking, stabbing, spitting, hitting, punching, head butting, choking, scratching, hiding or destroying soul’s property, etc.b. Ex axerophtholle: pushing peers against the lockers to ask for money, or touching someone in a sexual way when it’s not wanted…2. Verbala. slipway bullies can use language or words to hurt others: name calling, taunting, swearing, facing pages rumors, gossip, note writing, laughing at someone’s mistake, insulting nicknames, hate speech, bothersome or imitating, threats, abusive remarks, etc.b. workout: call someone crybaby, trout mouth; saying crocked things somewhat someone else…3. Emotional/ relational:a. Nonverbal: pointing, staring, laughing, devising faces, rolling their eyes, making loser signs, or sticking up middle fingers, etc.b. Psychological: excluding, isolating, ignoring or act their back on someone much(prenominal) as leaving someone out of activities or game, purposely not talking to someone… c. Another type of relational bullying is cyber-bullying is now very popular.Bullies can send emails spreading rumors, making under fire(predicate) digital images of someone else, texting someone mean messages, online exclusion, videotape assault, etc.II, Bullying has extremely broad effects on squirtren so I will go into depth nigh children’s effects of bullyingA. Educational and psychical fear always in the bullied’s minds.1. Keeping secrets and fears become phobia:a. hangdog of being bulliedb. Afraid of retaliation if verbalize an adultc. Don’t think anyone can protagonistd. Don’t think anyone result helpe.Lie1. â€Å"The parent’s book about bullying” states the real effects are:a. skip schools ( In 2001, The journal of the American Medical association reported that > 160,000 students skip school every day because they are fearful of being bullied)b. bust’t join in extracurricular a ctivitiesc. carrying weaponsd. Avoiding peers and social group at schoole. wavering to talk about what is happening at schoolf. sad and depressedg. Unexplainable drop in academic performance2. Being bullied can soupcon to commit suicide.1.Example: Jan 1999, Manchester, England, 8-year-old Marie Bentham hanged herself in her bedroom with her jump rope because she felt she could no yearlong face the bullies at school. She is considered Britain’s youngest bullycide.2. Example: June 29, 2005, a 15-year-old in Cape Coral, Florida, hanged himself after(prenominal) being repeatedly taunted online for 2 years by his classmates.III, Bullying is a life-death snub so we need to prevent it at home, school, or work.A. For parents1. intervene immediately with discipline2. create opportunities to â€Å"do good”3 . report the incident to school or child’s care4. teach friendship’s skill5. closely monitor children’s TV viewing, video game playing, computer ac tivities, etc.6. require in more constructive, entertaining, and energizing activitiesB. For teachers and school1. assembly info about bullying at school directly from students2. establishing clear school-wide and schoolroom rules about bullying3. training all adults on school to respond sensitively and systematically to bullying4. providing adequate adult supervision5. mproving parental knowingness of and involvement in working on the problem C.For the bullied Tell the bullies to stop let out to the school personnel, parents or adults outside of school Have your parents contact the school or school district Seek help for mental health issues if needed Anyone can become a victim of bullying but we can decrease our chances of being bullied of ours and others by being more informed on the concept, the effects of bullying and how to prevent it. Now, since you have more information about bullying, you may protect yourself and the ones you love!\r\n'

'Careless Whisper\r'

'Same with tactless, heedless, stupid.- the unmatchable who whispers, demand, control. â€Å"CARELESS WHISPERER” †it has something to do active our consciousness, conscience, and parkland sense as the one who whispers us to be c beless.Authors: Raff yeoman Halibuts Glacial Marie Pedro authorize Cyril clawing Diane Ethel Rodriguez herald taupe Date and dumbfound of composition: august 24, 2013 †event/ report thought by the group that took patch in Xavier universitys library fifth flu, nigh pm- pm August 27, 2013 †the topic was scudded by the group and sh ard inputs/ideas how to economize rough the topic. This was make in McDonalds divisor round pm- pm. August 30, 2013 †the group was able to write about the topic and starts to combine the work. This was do in raff yeomans place near 1 pm- pm.August 31, 2013 †finalization of work, editing, and posting it to formal output. This was done in glacial marries place around pm- pm. The readers: The readers of this project are mainly the popular worldly concern. Meaning ein truthone, everyone whos stupid enough to suppose that they are responsible regardless of the nigh acts that they shake up been doing. PURPOSE: In our eon now, a lot of people are in great trouble about being a responsible per discussion. trusty person towards themselves, other people, to the surround, and most peculiarly to God.Are this people aware of what they confound been doing? Do they think before they do something so offhanded to the extent of having the cost of others? This â€Å" haphazard” topic hopes to enlighten our minds and open our eyeball to the naked truth of the obvious encounter and reality of danger in the present. confine: the contents of this project are the events/incidents that we have been witnessed on lily living. An act of slipshodness has been witnessed after a high school scholarly person of Xavier university falls from the second floor of the university gy mnasium.It happened outdoor(a) the building barricade. non considering the danger, the kid stake his chances jumping off the metal bars to get the ball. The floor was slippery for it was fall had make the major contribution on making him fall directly to the substantial ground. The kid was not moving when I saw him. A campus security responded to him flat and called for rescue. As I saw the kids sing drawing lots of blood, I mat up bad for him. His careless act and finale almost put his life to an end. Students also are subject to several(prenominal) acts of carelessness.Irresponsible tardiness and absences are so common. Al flairs absent, cutting classes, subsequently keep themselves pressured for they almost consumed the allowable absences. escape of self discipline is one major problem. Not doing home works and projects. Not participating in class. And when its time for grading, inquire the teacher â€Å" wherefore I GOT FAILED”, â€Å"WHY I GOT LOW GRADESà ¢â‚¬Â. They should have asked themselves if they did their best. If they are worthy for those grades that they been dreaming. Another incident that abide be considered as â€Å"careless” happened a year ago, along Bali highway. Hen a driver still drives a public Jeep even when he was in the influence of alcohol. He was so careless that he even brought his son with him and permit it sit beside him in the front seat. He should have considered his condition and think that he was in charge of the many lives of his passenger. As a result of his stupid reckless act, the Jeep that he was driving got an hazard that leads to the death of 3 people and several injured including his son. He should have taken extra are thinking that his son is in the vehicle.And nevertheless should havent drive by means of his condition. Carelessness leads also to the cost of the environment to go against us. This is when the former leading of our alliance disregard the issue of wrong anti- envir onmental activities in Canaan De ROR. This includes illegal mining, illegal logging, and toleration of improper waste management. This careless act brought a massive subject after super typhoon sending earn the northern Mindanao. That was indeed a very powerful typhoon that can really caused a massive and tragic event.But the carelessness of our leadership had multiplied the damage it brought. Trees that may have slowed the falsehood were gone, drainage that should give way to the water were clogged by garbage. If leaders have took full responsibility and foreseen something akin it, they should have initiated full authority and made precautions for it. All carelessness leads us to be apart from God. For we may hurt everyone and everything that he made. We may be able to be sorry for it, and be forgiven. Maybe well bring it sooner or later, but the circumstance is â€Å"the damage has been done”.\r\n'

'Teenage Pregnancies and the Health Risks to the Unborn Child\r'

' rivulet Head: puerile climb onrager get under ones skinhood jejuneage Pregnancies and Health Risks Betty Samuelsen Western Governors University puerileage girls should quit from the colleague pressing of becoming heavy(predicate). seemly with child(predicate) at a new-fashioned age may sop up consequences with the depart of seriousness. gravid three-year-olds atomic number 18 encouraging otherwises to endure enceinte in the stress of fel crushed rack. immatures be watching too to a greater extent than television system that encourages them to perform pregnant. gestation period is a major fence that the drop egress rate of immature girls is so senior mettle whatever. juveniles bring to be communicate of the health risks that they may be set intimately with if they become pregnant.\r\n query suggests that there be no prosperous solutions to the complexity of issues poignant pregnant teens, such as international molds in the for m of other pregnant teens and media that encourage gestation, the pitch of gestation on a teenagers cultivation, and the health risks faced by pregnant teens and their unhatched children. Television shows be one example of media that complicates the issue of teen pregnancy. Studies show that teens, 12-17 years of age, that watch television shows that consent the well-nigh elicitu altogethery apocalyptic information, ar twice as in all probability to become pregnant (Chandra, 2008).\r\nThe television manufacture needs to wee-wee to a greater extent of a balance between sexual content and the risks that pregnancies fill upon teens (Chandra, 2008). These television shows excessively influence others to become pregnant be driving force it is the thing to do. For example, MTV chopine content implies that if a girl gets pregnant, thence the teen has a one-way tag end to fame and MTV is besides promoting teen pregnancy sort of of stating it as a serious conundrum in t he States (Montalvan, 2011). Television adjoins the complexity of this issue when watching television shows that bring on teen pregnancies appealing leads to peer pressure to become pregnant.\r\nFor example: Girls 16 and younger have gotten together to â€Å"plan” their pregnancies and how they be going to raise their children together. When the girls would find out if their pregnancy test came back positive, they would high five each other, alike(p) they were sublime to be pregnant at such a young age and they impart be ok (Males, 2008). Peer pressure is usually male-to-male and female-to-female, this pressure seems to be harder to extend from males due to status and cosmos reliable. On the other hand, females fall into peer pressure to â€Å"fill a void” in their lives and of importtain a relationship with the adversary sex (Sugland, 1997).\r\nNot only is peer pressure a problem, research shows that 20% of teens have stated that their p arnts (46%) are a lso a big influence on them having sex compared to the 20% of friends pressure (Albert, 2010). What is this tell close to parents influence on their feature teens? juveniles state that they wish they could have more open converses about sex with their parents and be more open in conversation about cont passption. They believe that this could pore teen pregnancies (Albert, 2010). There are also various cultural practices that complicate how teens think about pregnancy.\r\nIn adolescents views about sex, it is on their minds most of the magazine whether or non they are sexually active themselves. Views differ from race to race as to the frequency of sex among their peer groups, for instance African-American discriminate more sex than among peer groups in the European-and Mexican-American peer groups. (Mahavarkar, Madhi, & Mule, 2008). Teen pregnancy is non only a topical anaesthetic problem, just now is a global concern stock- soothe with the conflicting information from study to study. The forward new labor government in England identifies pregnant groomgirls as a particularly vulner able-bodied group.\r\nIn addition, research shows unlike effects of pregnancy on the pedagogics of pregnant teens. The leading cause, 30%, of teens falling out of high shoal is pregnancy and parenthood (National discharge to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 2010, March). In England, the 1st cornerstone of a four cornerstone campaign is to increase the participation of pregnant teens in education, raising and/or employment. jibe to the affectionate exception Unit, the reciprocal ohm strategy is getting 60% of young dumbfounds into training, employment, and education (as cited in Vincent & Thomson, 2010).\r\nThe Social Exclusion Unit assumes that meeting the second cornerstone provide help reduce the negative health, social and economic correlates of teen pregnancies. Researchers appear to agree with policy- triflers on the challenges that the pregnant tee ns and mothering teens face in their education. The discussion section of raising and Skills put out a focal point on the education of educate-aged girls and parenting mothers which outlined the expectations that the teens should be getting. Englands local authorities have a low priority in help teen mothers get back into education. scrutinize Commission, 1999, Coleman and Dennison 1998). In the 2001 guidance, the Department of culture and Skills state, â€Å"The school should ensure that the young woman continues culture as long as possible up until the induce by exploring all opport social wholeies for curriculum support available (Department of Education and Skills, 2001, 5). Schools are also required to appropriate an elective official to be in charge for the pregnant teenagersâ€someone whose main function is to facilitate the on-going education of the pregnant pupil and her successful reintegration to education afterward the six-week post-natal check-up.\r\nThis official should be made witting of all the schoolgirl pregnancies within the local authority. The local authorities are encouraged to tin the kindred education as those of pregnant teens. Pregnancy should not be the reason some of these parenting mothers are not organism geted to attend school. Schools should be partially accountable for the education of these parenting teens. In order to make this goal happen, schools would need to provide manoeuver for the pregnant teen to do at home when she is unable to attend school. almost half of the teens that are pregnant have a high school lambskin vs. 9% of those that were not teen mothers. â€Å" opposite data find that less than 2% of young teen mothers (those who have a muff before age 18) form a college degree by age 30” (National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, March 2010). Pregnancy can have negative effects on education. According to Ashley, study 1 of 4, was an average learner that found out at 6 weeks she wa s expecting. She thought, â€Å"Im not going to get my GCSEs [General security system of Secondary Education], Im not going to go to college and Im not going to get the rent out I want to get” (as cited in Vincent, & Thompson, 2010).\r\nAshley was hoping to be able to say goodby to her friends. The school implied that she would be able to moderate her education with a pupil referral unit; therefore, the school was expressing its concerns of the health and safety of her pregnancy. sorry communication of the students mainstream school with the pupil referral unit made Ashley miss coursework and failed some of her GCSEs that she was affirmative in passing. The school just did not sell. In some cases pregnancy has combine effects on a students education but sedate presents complications.\r\nShae, study 2 of 4, had mixed reactions, peers were mostly accepting, but among provide they are mixed, some accepting, others not so much. The meeting was a different internet site from Ashleys. Shae was able to stay in her school until most of her GCSEs were complete with minimal accommodations, such as leaving class a little early to avoid organism â€Å"crushed” in the hallways. Her teacher also took on making sure the educatee Referral Unit had coursework for her to do, unlike to first study. Shae snarl more apart of her school still (as cited in Vincent, & Thompson, 2010). Pregnant teens will need to make complicated decisions on education.\r\nShae was able to stay in the mainstream school until her seventh month of pregnancy, but at the similar time still felt like she was apart of the school. Unlike Ashleys school, Shaes was more supporting of her situation. Children of teen mothers are affected in the long term, such as, becoming a teen parent later (National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 2010). Pregnant teens will have a much harder time finding well paying jobs if they are not able to have the square-toed education availab le to them… Without a high school education, it is much harder to be accepted into college (National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 2010).\r\nShae was aware that she had a choice and made that cognise to the school and staff members and stuck to convincing them to allow her to stay and accomplish her dreams and goals that she had set for herself. entitle IX actually protects pregnant teens to have an equal education to those of their peers, no take the situation. (Educational Policy, January and March 2006, 20(1). Shae was aware of the choice that she had on her education and made it known to the school and the staff members and stuck to convincing them to allow her to stay.\r\nAs stated above the Title IX, is an American statue, that should also prepare pregnant teens the same opportunity as those in other countries. For example, a non-educational consequence of teen pregnancy is the health risks to the mother and the baby. antepartum care is critical in the first mon ths of pregnancy. Prenatal vitamins with folic acid are suggested to be interpreted before becoming pregnant to counteract certain have got defects, such as neural tube defects (as cited in Nihira, M. , 2009. Teen Pregnancy: Medical Risks and Realities). Some of the health risks for both the pregnant teen and un intrinsic child are as follows:\r\nTeens have more complictions in delivery than those in their 20s and later. Pre-Term deliveries for the unborn child are a major complication. The teen is 3 times more likely to develop anemia, than those that are not teens. Pre-term deliveries are higher in some studies while other studies do not have the higher rates. unretentive prenatal care and late recognition of complications could explain the high rate of pre-term delivery. (Mahavarkar, Madhu, & Mule, 2008). some(prenominal) baby born before 37 weeks is considered pre-term or â€Å"preemie. ” Full term lasts 40 weeks.\r\nThe baby can have respiratory, digestive, v ision, cognitive, and umteen more problems (as cited in Nihira, M. , 2009. Teen Pregnancy: Medical Risks and Realities). Pregnant teens are still growing themselves which puts their unborn child at a greater risk of being a â€Å"premee” and being under weight. Pregnant teens are 1. 8 times more likely to have low birth weight babies. Research shows that in a controlled and study low birth weights are as follows: 2. 5 (42% study, 59% controlled). (Mahavarkar, Madhu, & Mule, 2008). Babies that are less than 3. 3 lbs. ay have to be put on a breathing device to help them breath after birth due to their lungs not being to the full developed. Premature babies usually have not had enough time in the womb to develop fully (as cited in Nihira, M. , 2009. Teen Pregnancy: Medical Risks & Realities). Complications for the pregnant teen may be very severe. pre-eclampsia is a severe condition for the mother such as bleeding problems, pre-mature musical interval of the place nta from the uterus before the baby is born (placenta abruption), rupture of the liver, stroke, and death (rarely). (Mahavarkar, Madhu, & Mule, 2008).\r\nFor example, pre-eclampsia, can cause swelling in the hands and feet of the mother along with organ damage (as cited in Nihira, M. , M. D. , (2009). Teen Pregnancy: Medical Risks & Realities). Research suggests that there are no easy solutions to the complexity of issues affecting pregnant teens, such as outside influences in the form of other pregnant teens and media that encourage pregnancy, the effect of pregnancy on a teenagers education, and the health risks faced by pregnant teens and their unborn children. In conclusion, outside influences account for some of the reasons that teens are becoming pregnant in high school.\r\nIf teens are not sexually active in high school, teen peers torment them and encourage them to become pregnant. In return, the pregnant teens and teen mothers suffer the natural consequences of be coming pregnant. One result is not having an equal education to their peers and not having the meliorate paying jobs that the other teens may have. Teens that become pregnant while still young and their unborn child face extensive health issues, such as low birth weight, pre-eclampsia, possible stroke, and possible death. annex List Albert, B. (2010). With one Voice 2010: America’s Adults and Teens sound off about Teen Pregnancy.\r\nWashington, D. C. : The NCPTP and Unplanned Pregnancy. Audit Commission, (1999) Chandra, A. (2008). report card: TV influences teen pregnancy stats. Retrieved from Coleman & Dennison, (1998) Department of Education and Skills, (2001), 5. Educational Policy, (January and March 2006) 20,(1). Mahavarkar, S. H. , Madhu, C. K. , & Mule, V. D. (2008). A comparative study of teenage pregnancy. journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 28(6), 604-607. inside:10. 1080/01443610802281831. Males, M. (2008). http://articles. latimes. com/2008/jul /13/ mental picture/op-males13. National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy (March 2010).\r\nWhy It Matters: Teen Pregnancy and Education. Nihira, M. , M. D. , (2009). Teen Pregnancy: Medical Risks & Realities. Retrieved from http://www. webmd. com/baby/teen-pregnancy-medical-risks-and-realities. Social Exclusion Unit, (1999). Sugland, B. (n. d). Sex, Pregnancy and contraceptive method: A Report of Focus pigeonholing Discussions with Adolescents. N/A, Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Vincent, K. , & Thomson, P. (2010). ‘Slappers like you dont belong in this school: the educational inclusion/exclusion of pregnant schoolgirls. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 14(4), 371-385. doi:10. 1080/13603110802504580\r\n'

'Nop Application Form\r'

'Lahore University of Management experience Application form for crusade Outreach computer programme Batch 2013 Who can engage? 1 Photograph Paste here with gum Applicants should shed atleast 80% MARKS IN MATRICULATION in order to apply for the NOP. Moreover, NOP is a NEED BASED SCHOLARSHIP. merely genuinely financi altogethery deserving students allow for be considered for the program. Instructions for the submission of employment form: Please follow these book of instructions carefully: • • • • • Fill the form in BLOCK LETTERS.Fill in the form using a black pen. Write your designation and date of birth at the patronage of each photograph. Fill the form altogether; INCOMPLETE forms allow for non be processed. Submit all the required bread and butter documents (Listed below) with your application form. Applications WITHOUT COMPLETE DOCUMENTS impart not be processed. No further reminder will be sent. • • Application degre e on with all the required reenforcement documents should reach LUMS Admissions representation latest by April 19, 2013.Selection decisions will be get offed in June †July 2013. CHECKLIST OF THE REQUIRED ACADEMIC DOCUMENTS: Please mail all the required backup documents (menti matchlessd below) along with the application form in a single envelope to the mailing manoeuvre given below in the disaster: • • • Three attested latest mountain pass size photographs; Attested copy of matric/O direct result eyeshade (Attestation should be from your indoctrinate); Attested copy of National Identity Card (NIC) of your parents/ defender; paginate 1 of 9 CHECKLIST OF THE REQUIRED monetary AID DOCUMENTS: For each of the items in the tote up list below, please ensure that you each provide the relevant document(s) or if this is not possible bushel a pellucid reason for not being able-bodied to do so. For example: If you don’t pull in any bring great( p) against your name, you can write: I tell that I don’t have any loan outstanding against my name. The LUMS monetary Aid Office has the right to fill or reject the explanation/reason. • • •Income certificates of all earning members of the family* †This includes latest salary hocus-pocus for remunerative persons (father/ mother/ pals/ sisters), pension books for retired, income affidavit for self-importance employed or line of creditman and a certificate/ proof in case of any other income. affirm Statements (for the polish year) of all bank accounts in the name calling of all the family members and in the name of business in case of businessmen. Utility Bills (last ternion months) †electrical energy, Gas, foretell, Water. Note: * An income certificate is the document that shows periodic/annual income.If your parents/guardian are salaried, an superior copy of a pay slip should be attached, otherwise if your parents/guardian cause a bus iness they should submit Bank Statement for the last one year. If parents/ guardian do not fall in either of the above two cases (that is salaried employee or business man) they should submit an working class on a stamp report/affidavit (of Rs. 20) stating their income and with relevant details. Important Notes: • • In case of providing false development, candidate will be disqualified and his / her application will not be considered.If required, you will be requested to provide more financial documents/ information to carry the process further. placard address is given below: Syed Absar Ul Hassan Office of Admissions Lahore University of Management learnings Sector U, DHA, Lahore Cantt. 54792 2 Photographs raw material here foliate 2 of 9 Personal learning pee: puzzle’s Name: withstander’s Name: Date of Birth (of student): ______/______/______ dd / mm / yy fix’s / defender’s NIC #: (Provide a copy of NIC) Mailing make do: (All f uture correspondence will be made on this address) city: Phone #: / (City code) DISTRICT: Mobile #: PROVINCE:permanent wave Address: ( If different from the mailing address) CITY: Phone #: / (City code) DISTRICT: PROVINCE: telecommunicate*: * It is mandatory for you to have a effectual email address as substantially otherwise your form can be considered INCOMPLETE. Do you have internet coming at home or upright your house? YES NO varlet 3 of 9 Secondary School Information jibe tag/ Grades Matric / O- train Name of School / College Name of Examination mesa Did you have a position in tabular array Exam? If yes; which one? YES NO Obtained Marks/Grades 1 †2 †3 †4 †5 †6 †7 †8 †9 †10 offer Secondary School/ mediate level Degree InformationHave you completed your intermediate level degree? YES NO Total Marks/ Grades Intermediate / A-level 1st year Intermediate / A-level 2nd year General Science Roll No: Obtained Marks/Grades flow Name : Pre-Medical Pre-Engineering Arts/Commerce some other Name of Examination Board Did you have a position in Board Exam? YES NO If yes; which one? both other achievement: 1 †2 †3 †4 †5 †6 †7 †8 †9 †10 Give details of teacher / passkey / principal of your institution who knows you personally. Name: School: Tel:________/_____________ (city code) Address:__________________________________________ netmail address: Page 4 of 9 Give details astir(predicate) yourself and your siblings*: *Siblings are brothers and sisters Full Name mount (in years) School / College / University (If still studying) one-year slant (in Rs) Parents Scholarships Contribution (in Rs) (in Rs) Assets Title i. House ii. terra firma / Plot iii. Agriculture iv. Commercial both other information Asset self-control** Current Value ( in Pakistani Rupees) bea (in Kanals/Marlas or Sq. payt) Location **In this column provide information well-nigh who owns the specific asset. It can be your father, mother, brother or grandfather etc.Income Source work i. Agricultural income (Annual) ii. Salary / Pension (Annual) iii. Returns on Saving & Investment (Annual) iv. Rental Income(Annual) v. crease Income (Annual) vi. Income from any other denotation Total (i, ii, iii, iv,v & vi) A: Total Income: (A+B+C) Father’s Mother’s Guardian’s / Brother’s & infant’s B: C: Page 5 of 9 How many air-conditioners do you have in your house? oddball of Vehicle 1 2 3 4 Make and Model have by Annual Educational Expenses Annual Rent (If living in a rented house) Annual Taxes Annual Telephone Bills Are there any outstanding loans? ) ii) iii) Yes No Annual Medical Expenses Transportation/ aliment/Traveling Expenses/Other Expenses (per Annum) Annual Electricity Bills Annual Water/Gas Bills If yes so: Please indicate the meter of loan in Rs. ________________________. And also please specify the purpose for taking the loa n ___________________ The source from where loan was taken Bank * congeneric Employer* Other (Please Specify): * Please attach the supporting documents in case the loan is taken from a Bank or Employer. any other expense: ? Tuition Fee for the first year at LUMS is Rs. 5,00,000/- roughly ?Please Indicate the total amount of contribution you can make towards your charge fee annually at LUMS Rs: ________________ Page 6 of 9 Why do you require financial aid (Attach divulge sheet if required)? How did you get to know almost National Outreach Program? (Tick any one of the following) Friends/Relatives Newspaper Add LUMS website Information sitting at School/College Kindly advert the School/College Name where you attended the seance:_________________________________________ Other(Please Specify): ___________________________ Undertaking: I certify that the information given on this form is precise to the best of my knowledge.I understand that any falsifying may cause my dismissal from the Programme at any stage. ________________________ Applicant’s Signatures Date: ______/______/______ dd / mm / yy ________________________ Father/Guardian’s Signature Date: ______/______/______ dd / mm / yy For enquiries regarding your application form contact us at: Phone: 042-35608000; Ext: 2433 Fax: 042-35898317, Email: [email protected] edu. pk Page 7 of 9 Essay Topic: Describe a situation or an experience of your manner which demonstrates your best characteristic or case (200 words): You can express your ideas in side of meat or Urdu. Page 8 of 9 Page 9 of 9\r\n'

'In “Tree At My Window” by Robert Frost Essay\r'

'In â€Å"Tree At My Window,” Robert frosting addresses a maneuver growing stunnedside of his bedroom windowpane with these lecture: â€Å" precisely tree…You aim seen me when I slept, … I was taken and swept / And all scarce lost. / That twenty- cardinal hour period she put our cracks together, / Fate had her imagination ab place her, / Your head so much concerned with come forwarder, / Mine with plate(a), weather.” In these lines icing the puck conveys some(prenominal) emotions and themes that infiltrate many of his deeds. These uncouth themes include shadowness, nighttime, isolation, inner turmoil and the premonition of death. It is with these pass off images that we ar equal to(p) to glimpse into Robert freezing’s deportment, and see how greatly his spiritedness naturalized his poetry.\r\nRobert ice residualured many ablaze aphonicships in his life. many of the most significant and tragic, ar the many deaths in his immediate family. By the time rime was 27, he had lost both of his p arnts, his son Elliott, as s well(p) up as his grand capture, the man who had served as a replacing father to him after the death of his own father when he was solitary(prenominal) 11. By the time coer was 62, he was forced to commit his sister Jeanie to a mental hospital. He had also lost trey to a greater extent of his seven children ( angio xsin-converting enzyme to a miscarriage), as well as his wife Elinor, the love of his life. Five eld later, his son Carol committed suicide.\r\nâ€Å"Spring Pools” is a reflection on freezing’s inner emotions in dealing with the deaths of his children. The â€Å"pools, that though in forests, heavy little reflect / The total sky almost without defect,” are his children. He speaks of their innocence, and the fact that they are too new-fashi unrivaledd to know the imperfections of the world, too young to be jaded, or even scared of their forthcom ing death.\r\nThe poem is empower â€Å"Spring Pools,” until now; it does non give an antic of Spring in the traditional senses of newness, rejuvenation, joy & angstrom; rebirth. Rather the term â€Å"spring” is use in the title in much the the likes of sort as the term â€Å"Spring lamb,” an animal whose only purpose ass being born is to be slaughtered at the end of the season.\r\nThe trees and roots are symbolic of both death and God. He implores the â€Å"trees that stimulate it in their pent-up buds / to darken nature” to â€Å" skipk twice before they use their powers / To blot out and drag in away / These salad daysy waters.” He is literally beg God to reconsider when bringing death upon his children, even so he knows that he is non the force commanding the situation. He knows that his children â€Å"will like the flowers beside them soon be g wizard.” The fresh pools, â€Å"from snow that melted only yesterday,” are spoke of with a touch of nostalgic innocence.\r\n ice puts both himself and Elinor, in the poem as, â€Å"a flower beside [the pools].” In referring to the â€Å"pools” as â€Å"flowery waters,” he is not only showing the parental bond amid the â€Å"pools” and the â€Å"flower[s] beside them,” but also intensifying the image that the â€Å"pools” are soft, young and innocent. He speaks of their premature death, â€Å"not out by any brook or river, / only up by roots to bring dark foliage on” with deep-rooted feelings of loss brought on by his own personal tragedy.\r\nâ€Å"Spring Pools” contains deep voltaic pile its lines the themes of loathsomeness, sadness, and inevitable death. It shows freezing’s struggle to learn occurrences in his life that are virtually insuperable. At the end of the poem, he slowly comes to terms with the suspicion of life, and he begins to resolve his feelings of contempt for the collective world. rhyme is rarely satisfied or resolved with his choices, how ever he is get downing of his hereafter uncertainties. At the end of most of Frost’s poems, he has chiefly resolved or come to terms with his emotional and mental turmoil. Many of his works share these selfsame(prenominal) inner conflicts, such(prenominal) as his poem â€Å"The road not taken.”\r\nFrost uses â€Å"The Road Not Taken” as poem as a parable for the mass amount of travelling that he was doing in the period of his life in which it was written. Between 1909-1915, Frost and his family relocated their home twelve times. They lived in several places on America’s East Coast, including parvenu Hampshire, Massachusetts, and the Virginia-North Carolina border, as well as England, Gloucestershire, and then patronize to New York. It was during this time of transporting his family back to America that Frost wrote â€Å"The Road Not Taken.”\r\nIn â€Å"The Road Not Taken,” Frost speaks of â€Å"Two roads…in a yellow wood” and the decision that he essential make in choosing one path over the other. He â€Å"looked down one as furthest as I could / To where it bent in the underbrush…Then took the other, as just as fair,” and scrutinized its possibilities and emf in comparison to the first road. He at long last comes to a decision, deciding to â€Å"[keep] the first for another(prenominal) day! / Yet knowing how way leads on to way, / I doubted if I should ever come back.”\r\nBut is he satisfied with his decision? Of manakin not! â€Å"I shall be telling this with a sigh / someplace ages and ages hence: / Two roads diverged in a wood and I †/ I took the one less traveled by, / And that has do all the difference.” He is not satisfied with his decision, as is made apparent when he says that he will be â€Å"telling this with a sigh” somewhere in the future. However, one does not hold in to be satisfied with their decision to accept it. Choosing the â€Å"road less traveled by” â€Å"has made all the difference” in his life, but Frost does not specify that his choice was the one that produced the exceed possible outcomes in his life.\r\nMany of Frost’s poems concern his future and do decisions that will inwardness the rest of his life. The poem â€Å"An of age(predicate) Man’s Night” was first published at the same time as â€Å"The Road Not Taken.” It was a time of great unsettlement, both mentally and physically for Frost. Frost was travelling from one city to another trying to establish his roots. His poetry was being current quite well, but his personal life was in a disheveled state. Elinor was becoming ill collectable to a weak heart and she suffered a miscarriage.\r\nFrost feared for her life, as well as fearing the loneliness that seemed to be inevitably looming in his future. He had suffered quite a substantial amount of grief and heartache, and he was panic-stricken of the image of acquire old by himself. He had been cognise to hear voices in his head as a child, however, Frost re mained adamant that these voices had disappeared when he entered adulthood. some critics, however, agree that Frost refused to admit that the voices lock in in use(p) his mind in order to avoid clapperclaw or institutionalization.\r\nThe old man in â€Å"An Old Man’s Winter Night,” can be construed to be Frost himself when he states ambiguously, â€Å"All out of doors looked darkly in at him / Through the ‘thin frost’.” The man is old and alone, not able to remember his reasoning and decisions. He goes into his cellar, but â€Å"what unploughed him from remembering what it was / that brought him to the creaking room was age. / He stood with lay round him †at a loss.” The stillness of the home is obvious in the profit of common noises. He  "scared the cellar under him / In clomping in here…and scared the outer night / Which has its sounds, familiar, like the roar / Of trees, and crack of branches, common things. / But zipper so like beating on a box.”\r\nFrost feels that without anyone around him in his life, his life would die insignificant, a â€Å" swooning he [would be] to no one but himself.” He identifies with the darkness, calling the moon â€Å"as better than the sun in any eccentric / For such a charge.” He is able however, to reclaim peace and relief in the darkness that envelops him. â€Å"The lumber that shifted with a jolt / Once in the reach disturbed him and he shifted, / And eased his heavy breathing, but still slept.” Although he is not content, he is starting time to accept that this may be a authorisation outcome of his life. The final lines convey his fear of the future when he says, â€Å"One aged man †one man †can’t keep a house…or if he can…It’s thus he does it of a winter night.”\r\nThe darkness and mystery that couple with nighttime are linchpin players in many of Frost’s metaphors. He oftentimes uses a winter night as his setting, and most commonly, the verbaliser is either travelling or walking out in the cold. Frost himself was rumored to be afraid of the dark, but he was also known for taking long walks in the dark. This was a open way of confronting his fears by staring the darkness in the face and standing up to the nighttime that frightened him. After years of this practice, Frost found himself not only comfortable and at ease in the darkness, but he found also that the nighttime was where he became the most content and free from anxiety. Frost was a very contemplative man, and he used his work to convey his inner thoughts and fears.\r\nIn â€Å" nigh Hours,” Robert Frost writes about a late eve walk down a winter lane. The verse scheme of this poem is a simple A, A, B, B pattern and is broken down into four stanzas of four lines each. The speaker walks in pensive silence, having â€Å"no one at all with whom to talk.” As he walks down the winter lane, he personifies the inanimate objects that surround him, and gives light and life to the surroundings that fill the bleak night.\r\nThe main unification in this poem comes from the recurring themes of darkness, amplification of sound and stillness, and the speaker’s inescapable loneliness. The speaker is feeling isolation from the world around him, and he cannot escape that feeling no matter how hard he tries to disillusion himself that his life follows the same course as the lives of the people that he sees in the cottage windows.\r\nThe night is lonely and the speaker tells of â€Å"cottages in a row / Up to their shining eyes in snow.” How can a cottage have eyes, the variety meat of vision, if it does not possess the sense of sight? But to the speaker, the cottages are enormously alive, and the windows are the eyes from which he can see into the cottage’s soul. eyeball themselves do not literally â€Å"shine,” but in this instance, it is literally true to say that the eyes of the cottage were â€Å"shining” from the light within.\r\nThe inside of the cottages are wide of people performing various activities, and although the speaker is not included in the actions of their lives, he feels as though he is a part of it all, â€Å"I thought I had the folk within: / I had the sound of a violin.” The speaker catches a â€Å"glimpse” from behind a veil of â€Å"curtain laces” â€Å" youthful forms and youthful faces.” (This too, can be construed as an image of his children, partially veiled by a shroud of death). He allows himself to become an integral part of the background aspect to such an extent that it satisfies him and keeps his mind occupied. Notice that he never once mentions the bitter cold that should keep an eye on a snowy winter evening.\r\nAlthough he has no human companion with him, the speaker has â€Å"such caller-up outward bound,” that he continues to walk deep into the night until â€Å"there were no cottages found.” He has been in such deep thought that he has not accomplished that he has reached the end of the town. He turns and realizing that he has been out such a long time and that it is getting very late, â€Å"I saw no window but that was black,” he heads back toward his home. He crosses the â€Å"slumbering colony road” with his â€Å"creaking feet,” a paradox since the street cannot actually rest or sleep because it is not living. An inanimate object does not need sleep or rest, however, when he â€Å"disturbs” the street’s â€Å"slumber,” he feels it is â€Å"like profanation.” He is disrespecting the street and putting it to an indecent use at this time of night, â€Å"at ten oà ¢â‚¬â„¢clock of a winter eve,” when everything else in the town is at rest and still. The street is inane except for one last wanderer still traversing down a lonely lane.\r\nFrost deals with recurring themes of darkness, loneliness, death, and uncertainty. Through these themes, Frost reveals himself in candid form. He was a natural born worrier who often got nervous stomachaches. These occurrences became so frequent that eventually they herd him to quit school for several years. He had fears of defection in his childhood, which lead to feelings of isolation in adulthood. twain of these projections can be seen in lines from â€Å"Desert Places.” â€Å"I am too absent-spirited to count; / The loneliness includes me unawares.” Frost writes, â€Å"They cannot scare me with their empty spaces / between stars…I have it in me so much nearer home / To scare myself with my own desert places.”\r\nBy making the parallel between Frost’s life and his p oetry, we are able to clearly see how his life experiences shaped his poetry. These experiences gave birth to some of his greatest works, and from these works we see the man behind the poetry. We see a man who dealt with more heartbreak, hardships and sorrow than most should have to endure. We see a man who put more effort and soul into his work, than many will ever attempt. And we see a man whose works have inspired many, and will continue to do so for generations to come.\r\n'

'Reading the Poetry of Sylvia Plath Can Be a Disturbing Experience Essay\r'

'I agree with the above pedagogy as for me practice session Plath’s poetry was so atomic number 53r disturbing. The best poems to explain this experience be â€Å" gruesome hook in Rainy Weather,” â€Å"Finisterre,” â€Å"Morning Song,” â€Å" kidskin” and of course, â€Å"Poppies in July”. in that respect ar poems that atomic number 18n’t sooner as depressing, such as â€Å"Pheasant”, only if sure as shooting an unsettled atmosphere dominates by dint ofout Plath’s work.\r\n master(prenominal) text The theme explored in â€Å"B escape Rook in Rainy Weather” is the lack of devotion and the depression that arises therefore. Plath is in a farming of desperation, she describes her life-time as a â€Å"season of fatigue” (part of the poems mental landscape) with â€Å"brief respites from awe of total neutrality.” Her life is fatuous as she perceives it, to the extent that the most banal th ings may serve inspiration to her tormented mind: â€Å"A minor light may still slant incandescent out of kitchen t adapted or leave as if a celestial burning in additionk self-denial of the most obtuse objects direct and then…” It is comforting to realise that Plath is able to find inspiration in this, save the poem is simply permeated with her pain and fear of losing all motivation: ein truththing is black, it is raining and the background riding horse seems dull.\r\nIt is a fairly routine situation in which most people have probably piece themselves at some stage. Therefore, it is likely to that readers can contact to it, but its only effect could be to levy bad memories and make one feel uncomfortable. It is all crucial(p) that the reader attempts to exclude the thoughts of her tragic death and or so permanent state of severe depression when reading her work in order to give it a chance. However, it seems to reasonable stare at you from the page. Al so penetrative that, all her work acquires a sinister context, which is then disturbing: if a person to bright and capable couldn’t find a solution to her inner problems †what about the rest of us?\r\nâ€Å"Finisterre” is an imaginative masterpiece. only the themes that feature in it are very important too. Sylvia Plath is emphasising the disap identifyment of organised religion and therefore rejects the safe qualities of the look forward to that religion normally provides. To take external one’s stretch out look forward to is deep unsettling. The poet describes a grand statue of Our dame of the Shipwrecked to whom a straw hat is praying and similarly a child who came to pray. However, according to Plath, Our Lady â€Å"doesn’t hear what the sailor or the peasant is saying, she is in love with the beautiful forlmelessness of the sea.” The dismissal of hope is harsh, those who are meant to care †don’t, according to P lath.\r\nWhat is one left with after one loses hope? about other poets known for their gloomy outlook, like T.S. Eliot who also submerges the readers in the bleakness of reality, offered us hope in religion, but Plath failed to find refuge redden in that. It is as if this is non only land’s end but it is also the end of hope, doctrine and all good things. She does, however, attempt to provide an alternative. The last line â€Å"These are our crepes. Eat them before they cuff cold” calls the reader to make the most of the kick in moment but not signify too deeply about life †this is emphasised by the very simple language used here.\r\nThis may seem to come as a solution, but to me personally this conveys an even worse disturbance- running from the right because it is so intolerable. As I said, the images in â€Å"Finisterre” are amazing. The cascade of rocks is describes as â€Å"fingers knuckled and rheumatic cramped on nothing,” rocks  "hide their grudges under the water,” the waves are the â€Å"faces of the drowned,” the mist is do up of the souls of dead people. Everything described here is nothing, dead, or about to die, just like those seemingly luckless flowers at the edge of the cliff. This poem kills any hope in the reader and, therefore, I believe it is very disturbing.\r\nâ€Å"Morning Song” offers us an insight into the human relationship of a mother and a parvenuborn baby. There are elements of joy in it, but even the arrival of a baby is full of invalidating emotions for the poet. The baby is described as a â€Å"new statue in a drafty museum…” Why is a baby, whose life just started described as a statue? A statue is something withdrawn, distant, it even echoes the statue of â€Å"Finisterre.” A newborn is non of those things, but that is how Plath sees it. The museum is drafty. To most of us a museum is a ingathering of distinct pieces but to her life aga in appears through the prism of depression. This is nothing new to a Plath’s reader but it is a new level of stimulated disturbance when not even a new life, the birth of her own child was able to support her mood.\r\nThe feeling of distance is further genuine through an image: â€Å"I’m not more your mother than the cloud that distils as reverberate to reflect its own slow effacement at the wind’s hoard.” Paradoxically, Plath focuses on her own feelings of the lack of attention to herself: the cloud is the mother, who gives birth to a puddle †the baby, and the baby is similar to the mother, and therefore, her reflection. Probably Plath felt undo from the baby and felt that her own role is now diminished. I think that this is quite unnatural, although understandable. However, such a description of motherhood is disconcerting.\r\nâ€Å"Child” and â€Å"Poppies in July” are explicitly disturbing. In â€Å"Child” Plath feels un able to bring to pass her dream of granting her children a happy life: â€Å" consortium in which images should be grand and classical, not this hard wringing of hands, this dark ceiling without a star.” This is frightfully upsetting. The reader can just sense the pain and disappointment, feelings of failure and despair that the poet must be experiencing.\r\nBut â€Å"Poppies is July” is just immersed in her pain, or even the lack of it. The state she describes is profoundly terrifying. It exhausts her to watch poppies flickering, yet she masochistically continues to carefully observe them. She is not just depressed now. We are seeing a rather neurotic and insane attitude here which alternates with complete emotional obtundation. She perceives them as â€Å"hell flames,” she wishes for pain or death: â€Å"if I could bleed or sleep.” She is at a point where the mind is so shocked ant drop that it cannot even feel: â€Å"but colourless. Colourless.â € I think this is the most honest and strongest description of excruciating, suffocating emotional crisis that I have ever read.\r\nConclusion Overall, Plath’s poetry is full of ideas, mesmerising images, honest and deep thoughts with no sugar-coating. Almost all of these are destructively negative, which makes her poetry disturbing. She callously rejects hope, cruelly picks out the worst aspects in everything, her soul aches is fear of loss of those rare pass(a) moments of inspiration that kept her alive.\r\n'

'Hawthorne Studies Essay\r'

'Employees gage be considered as an organization most valuable asset. Their development by the organizational administrative possibly is a interpretation for military unit management. The needs for concern about individuals in an organization had been long time overdue. The Hawthorne studies were a dance step forward. Such studies was about relations approach finished a series of research methods, for instance illuminations and relay assembly test room experiments, interviewing problem and lingo wiring observation. This essay pull up stakes discuss to which boundary Personnel management is a legacy of the Hawthorne Studies. An economical motivation such as incentives was irrelevant in the process of increasing productivity. From the study one outhouse derived that workers’ achievement was solely based on the conference decisions. They decided what the right amount of the day was. thither are other influential factors that account for the gain of productivity.\r\nO ne butt joint speculate that the workers had their own agenda, inclined that the impose conditions on them was inefficient. The continuity in the sum up of productions could still be observed regardless of the situations. free radical interactions through both formal and informal assembly existed throughout e precise organizations. The study implies that informal groups existed on base formal groups. Such groupings develop their own rules and sort as well as mechanizations to implement it. The employees were more(prenominal) receptive to their group firmness than to the control and inducements of the executives. The leave alone of individuals to belong to an informal cluster with folks of equal attitude and backdrop is much desirable. One bottom of the inning speculate that workers often sympathize with one some other consequently they might remove a substitute in their attitude due to group demands.\r\nThe Hawthorne proceeding is significant when discussing the lega cy of Hawthorne studies. This turn outed in the workers to modify investigational aspects of their bearing. A simple reason is that they knew they were being observed. One can imply that the workers bound to display exemplary behavior that is anticipated from them. In view of the fact that they will never know if there will be serious penalty to follow due to resolution obtained. As one will adapt to the environmental norms and also follow it. Biasness in the interpretations of data is to be questioned.\r\nThe investigator’s own principles might have influences the constructions of justifications. No more than the management perspective was deliberated. How individuals increase output were the focal point of the studies, nevertheless the lines of cogitate were in support of the management (servants of power) as place by Baritz(1965). This in turn gave room for the fond employees to be manipulated by judicious managers. Managers often governed by logistics of cost and e fficiency as a result they created conditions for workers to produce more. Other believable explanations was omitted, thus errors from the results was imminent.\r\n bloom remarked” the Hawthorne studies, upon which so much human relations theory depended, were too incompetently executed to demonstrated very much at every(prenominal)” (Rose 1978 P.171). One can give credit to Rose as the have of workers was selective instead of a random try method. Furthermore troublesome personnel were replaced; this was because the police detectives wanted to take for the friendly atmosphere within the chosen group. The isolation of the group was an additional mistake. All of these features did non take up the actual working environment. The experiment employment touch was a façade.\r\nThis resulted in the naivety on the researcher’s behalf, whereby un anticipately they guided workers to produce an expected conclusion. To conclude one will argue that the Hawthorne St udies was a legacy of personnel management. It is due to the studies that individuals in organizations were interpreted seriously. Group regulation is one of the aspects that influence individuals’ decisions to maximize or minimize output. Economic motivation is not that indispensible.\r\nOn the other hand one cannot encompass the studies as a legacy in personnel management for the reason that the Hawthorne effect was mostly influential. necessary biasness from researchers’ judgment as they were from a affluent background and traditionally they support the management as George Homans (1962, p.4) a Hawthorne studies researcher remarked As a Republican Bostonian who had not rejected his comparative wealthy family, I felt during the thirties that I was under attack, above all from the Marxists. Lastly the condition under which the studies were undertaken was not up to standards, but according to the naivety of the researchers.\r\n'

'Earthquakes in MEDC’s and LEDC’s\r'

'A healthful-known principle states that the doctor of quakes in LEDCs or Less economic each(prenominal)(prenominal)y Developed Countries is for the around purpose more severe when compargond with MEDCs or More Economically Developed Countries. This shall be illustrated by comparing the Kobe quake in lacquer of 1995 with the Kashmir seism of 2005.\r\nThe Kobe Earthquake occurred on Tuesday, January 17, 1995, at 05:46 JST in the s bring outhern part of Hyogo Prefecture, lacquer. It measured 7.2 on the Richter scale and lasted for 20 seconds. The time of the tremors was around 20 seconds long. The focus of the earthquake was find 16km below the epicentre, on the northern edge of the Awaji Island, round 20km from Kobe. The proximity to the city was a major(ip) featureor out of its widespread demolition. The ground moved 18cm horizontally and 12 cm vertically.\r\nThe Kashmir Earthquake was caused by the Eurasian and Indian tectonic plate boundaries colliding. Its epicen tre was located in Azad Kashmir near the city of Muzaffarabad. It occurred at 08:52:37 Pakistan Standard Time (03:52:37 UTC) on 8 October 2005. According to the authorities, 79000 bulk died. A major factor in the severity of the earthquake was the misfortunate construction †a salient feature of LEDCs. The Indian Plate which was moving 40 mm a year north collided with the Eurasian plate and was coerce beneath it. It measured 7.6 on the Richter Scale.\r\nAs is evident, although the magnitude of both earthquakes was extremely connatural, the impacts varied broadly. This was imputable to some factors, which most if not all argon colligate to the economic situation of the countries. We shall begin by discussing the impacts of from each one of the earthquakes, thereafter we shall discuss why these effects differed.\r\nKashmir Earthquake\r\nImmediately, 1400 masses were killed. Buildings were swaying and many a(prenominal) collapsed due to the strength of the earthquake. electricity supplies were cut off, hoi polloi were trapped in buildings and roads were blocked due to landslides which hindered initial rescue attempts. Of the 8 million who were stirred, 100,000 were injured. Several trains on minor lines were derailed age 3.3 million homes were finished. These are the crux of the simple feather effects.\r\n many a(prenominal) cars were destroyed, trains were suspended, roads were blocked and in many areas the however way to access was through the air. Due to the impact on the buildings, many small businesses were shut put through leading to severe job losses. Pakistan lost a total of approximately $500,000,000, which led to the president of the time, Musharraf, to salute for international aid including money, tents, medical aid and helicopters. This suffices in illustrating the economic devastation brought to the country through the earthquake.\r\n study hospitals were destroyed, putting the injured in an extremely sound situation, the skyline was practically non-existent and perhaps the worst vicarious effect was the phenomena of landslides which destroyed much of the bag and menace those on the streets.\r\nAs mentioned earlier, there were a great quash of injured, homeless and jobless people. This caused widespread depression, which is apprehensible when the extended family wane-up of households is renderd.\r\nAll in all, more than 87,000 people died and 138,000 were injured. The citys infrastructure was destroyed, clean water system was extremely rare, hospitals were destroyed and many were homeless even after a year. This led to major secondary impacts much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as outbreaks of diseases due to contaminated water supplies; people were affected with respiratory infections such as pneumonia; and the harsh spend season caused the homeless to suffer. Around 3.3 million people were living in temporary accommodation by the end of the happenings.\r\nWhen we compare the impacts of the Kashmir earthquake with the Kobe earthquake, we find that the primary effects are similar. These include the fact that buildings collapsed and the fact that many trains derailed. Numerous bridges and expressways collapsed and 120 of the cl quays in the port of Kobe were destroyed as well as bollix and electricity supplies being disrupted.\r\nFires were set off due to destroyed liquid pipes and electricity mains make a further 7500 houses to burn. The roads were gridlocked causing delays in emergency serve. 716 aftershocks were recorded and these lasted for several days. Industries such as Mitsubishi and Panasonic were forced to close.\r\nThe death toll, however, was only 5500, injuries were 40,000 and 180,000 houses were destroyed. The impudently opened Kansai Airport, due to its brilliant structural foundations, withstood the earthquake, as well as the Akashi Bridge.\r\nHowever, when we consider the fact that the state density of both areas was similar yet the number o f dead, homeless and injured was far more in the Kashmir earthquake than that of the Kobe earthquake.\r\nBy July, in about 5 months, most of the infrastructure such as water, electricity, gas and telephone services were up and running. Most buildings in commercial areas were repaired and the places affected by fires had been cleared. Rail services were back in service by August. A year later, 80% of the port was functional i.e. all but the Expressway. There was an increase in the engineering used to determine information on earthquakes and movements in the region, and steps were implemented to make sure that devastation to that scale would not occur again.\r\nWhen the impacts of the 2 earthquakes are compared, it becomes clear that, although the population density of both areas were similar and the magnitude of both were similar, the death, injured and homeless figures are totally out of proportion, with Kashmir suffering a greater loss than Japan. This is in addition the case when the speed of recovery of the areas is considered, and it can be safely concluded that the infrastructure was more reliable in Kobe than in Kashmir. In addition, Japans economy was able to self-fund the aid whereas Musharraf was left plead the international community for aid. We shall examine each of these points in detail in the forthcoming paragraphs.\r\nFirstly, in hostel to understand where the problem lies, one must examine the details in chronological order. We find that the primary effects were extremely similar with buildings falling, electricity, gas and water supplies being disrupted, roads blocked etc. In some instances, we even find that Japan was fix worse such as the fact that the gas supplies were set alight causing fires.\r\nHowever, we see that each figure is out of proportion as this display panel illustrates:\r\nJapan\r\nKashmir\r\nDead\r\n5500\r\n87,350\r\nHomeless\r\n230,000\r\n3.3 Million\r\n wound\r\n40,000\r\n138,000\r\nIn my opinion, the vast amount of people who died in the Kashmir earthquake could build boiled down to a number of factors.\r\nIlliteracy and Ignorance of emergency procedure when an earthquake strikes could have posed as a major factor in the amount of people that died. This cerebration could be further strengthened when you consider that many people in LEDCs do not stimulate modern education. This is insofar as a the person-to-person scale goes.\r\nOn a presidencyal scale, due to the different priorities of LEDCs, little emphasis would be dictated on these types of events due to their minute chance of occurring. The government may wish to focus on some other matters. This idea could be strengthened when we are to friction match this fact with the reality of the Pakistani government which, check to a 2007 report of Transparency International, Pakistan ranks 7th most corrupt country in the world. It is highly potential that money may have been filtered in the victimize places.\r\nWhen compared with Japan, we see that they immediately increased the number of seismal instruments to record earth movements in the region. This would reduce the likelihood of it occurring again which is possibly the most important involvement to do for the government. In addition, the Japanese government ordained that buildings were to be built much more strongly and outlined a new set of guidelines for this to feature place. This would place too much of a appoint on the Pakistani government.\r\nAlthough these long-term causes should be rectified, other short-term causes should be identified. These include that, since Saturday was a common school day, many school children were studying and as a result were buried under collapsed schools. It was also during the month of Ramadan, when people were taking a quite a little after their pre-dawn meal, hence they may not have had enough time to escape. Entire villages were simply wiped out like this.\r\nIn conclusion, although it is expected that LEDCs lik e Kashmir would be hit worse than MEDCs such as Japan due to their economies, it is nevertheless possible to prevent such grave impacts that took place in Kashmir happening again. The people should be educated with emergency procedures, the government should site in relevant technology which would indicate and take to task them ahead of time when seismic activity was occurring. In addition, the government should outline new guidelines for buildings in which they are earthquake resistant just as Japan did. These would strain the economy in the short-term, although in the long term this would relieve the economy should an earthquake such as this one would take place again.\r\n'

'IT and Economic Performance: Evidence From Micro Studies\r'

'CHAPTER V: IT AND ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE: EVIDENCE FROM sm solely info STUDIES By B. K. Atrostic and Ron Jarmin* little selective t separatelyingâ€that is, entropy on individual seames that under prevarication key stintingal indicators†resign us to go behind published statistics and bear how IT affects linees’ frugal mathematical operation. Years ago, analyses suggestd a haughty birth betwixt IT and join oniveness, stock-st unhinged when official conglomeration statistics unsounded pointed towards a â€Å"productiveness paradox. no., intimately-nigh(prenominal)(prenominal) analyses shed fair on how varied that blood is across worryes, and how IT happen upons its squeezes. This chapter foc enforces on interrogation around businesses based on sm any entropy unruffled by the U. S. count power. We highlighting the attractives of questions close the engross and clash of IT that still little instruction al hapless us to addr ess. little show studies in the decrease in States and in former(a)(a) OECD countries translate that IT affects the productiveness and harvest-home of individual frugal wholes. unique(predicate) estimates of the surface of the resolution interpolate among studies.\r\n questioners comparing manufacturing brings in the coupled States and Germ whatsoever, for example, generate that in each(prenominal) republic giveing firmly in IT give outs a productiveness bounty, exclusively that the premium is high in the unite States than it is in Ger legion(predicate). They to a fault meet that the productiveness premium varies much more than(prenominal) than than than for U. S. manufacturers. This massiveer variability is lucid with the view that the U. S. insurance policy and institutional surrounds whitethorn be more conducive to experimentation by U. S. businesses. What sort of IT enthronizations do U. S. businesses make? number Bureau entropy on U.\r\n S. manufacturing establishments show that they come in in twain(prenominal) electronic schooling processing system benefit lends and the mixture of thickening softwargon that coordinates cardinalfold business processes in spite of seemance and among establishments. About 50 portion of these coiffures boast ne twainrks, while fewer than 10 pct lease invested in this complex softw ar. much(prenominal) a wide resistence in the midst of the presence of net subject fields and * Ms Atrostic (barbara. kathryn. [email protected] gov) is Senior Economist, and Mr. Jarmin (ron. s. [email protected] gov) is Acting Director, come to for frugal Studies, U. S. nose count Bureau. 61\r\ndigital miserliness 2003 complex softw atomic consider 18 in manufacturing, and equ eithery varied differences in their presence among elaborate manufacturing industries, highlight the change of IT employment among businesses. Plants with networks acceptedise high productive ness, even by and by checkerling for more of the plant’s scotch characteristics in the legitimate and prior periods. Similar results atomic number 18 prime in antithetical(a) OECD countries. al close studies refer that businesses need to make parallel coronations in actor reading and revised workplace practices ahead IT investment fundss yield productiveness gains.\r\nC beful little instruction enquiry shows that the birth in the midst of IT and stintingalal execution is complex. â€Å"IT” emerges as a suite of alternatives from which businesses make variant choices. Estimates of the size of the arrange, and how IT makes its encounter, remain delicate to pinpoint. selective learning gaps make it hard to conduct protective(predicate) analyses on the ready of IT. proceed efforts by investigateers and statistical organizations be filling just virtually of the information gaps, nevertheless the gaps remain volumedst for the secto rs outside manufacturingâ€the sectors that be the most IT-intensive.\r\nMore definitive query take aims that statistical agencies make producing little data a priority. What ar little entropy? small data primarily convey study or so numerous characteristics of the economic unit, much(prenominal) as plant employment, years in business, sh be of IT in damage, trends it examples IT, and its economic death penalty. Micro data exist for both businesses and individuals, and sewer be developed by private and public organizations. This chapter foc applys on enquiry apply little data some(predicate) businesses that ar tucked by the U. S.\r\nBureau of the Census. BENEFITS OF MICRO DATA RESEARCH Standard analyses of productiveness and mistak fitting economic phenomena frequently assume that businesses be homogeneous, at least within an fabrication, and on that pointfore standardisedly resolve similarly to changes in economic circumstances. However, it is easy to altercate this assumption hardly by observing the form of businesses in whatever industry, no social function how narrowly the industry is delineate, and how diverse their responses turn up to be. Case studies in precise industries repeatedly bear out this observation.\r\nMicro data allow us to evaluate the diversity of businesses and track behaviors much(prenominal)(prenominal) as their entry and allow for into an industry. They as well allow us to document changes in businesses’ surgical procedure, much(prenominal) as employment, sales, and productivity, and see whether those changes are supply among industries, within industries, or among businesses of given ages, sizes, and so forth. two decades of explore victimisation little data find tremendous variety in the economic characteristics and completeance of businesses at any time, and everywhere time. 1 An fantabulous summary is E. Barltesman and M.\r\nDoms, â€Å"Understanding productivi ty: Lessons from longitudinal Microdata,” journal of scotch Literature, Vol. 38 (September 2000). It reviews query conducted at the U. S. Census Bureau and gives references for reviews of little data enquiry conducted elsewhere. A detailed report on initial small data look for on productivity is erectd in M. Baily, C. Hulten, and D. Campbell, â€Å"productiveness Dynamics in Manufacturing Plants,” Brookings musical themes on scotch Activity: Microeconomics 1992. 1 62 digital preservation 2003 Micro data grass keystone a clearer flick of how aggregate economic statistics change.\r\nThey similarly allow queryers to apply econometric techniques that take accounting of the kinds of complex affinitys that save when can non be demonstrateed in tables or former(a) aggregated formats. Comparing findings from investigate studies employ different data sets allows us to see which estimates fall out to be robust, and which ones seem to depend on the peculia r(prenominal) data we handling, and on the particular equations we estimate. RESEARCH REQUIRES redeeming(prenominal) MICRO DATA Micro data research takes advantage of the high- caliber randomness intimately individual businesses that underlies study economic indicators.\r\nThe little data sets typically are boastful and nationally representative, making it more in all likelihood that they capture the tremendous diversity among businesses. 2 Researchers lots are able to bear on data at the micro level across analyzes and everyplace time. For example, bet the spic-and-span instruction on whether businesses deplete calculator networks, and how they design those networks that was collected in the Computer earnings practise subjunction (CNUS) to the 1999 Annual cartoon of Manufactures (ASM). The plant-level micro data most estimator networks collected in the CNUS can be coupled to learning about employment, shipments, workout of separate inputs, etc. , coll ected about the same plants in the 1999 ASM and to ASMs for separate years, and to data that was collected about the same plants in the 1997 Economic Census. such(prenominal) exact linkages yield much richer loveledge bases than any undivided supplement, survey, or census alone. When micro data can be linked, researchers also can exercise econometric techniques to control for unobserved characteristics that are specialised to an individual plant or business.\r\nThese techniques allow researchers to rent more confidence that findings, such as the upshot of IT actually are receivable to IT and non to cerebrate still un natived characteristics, such as bully management or a skilled work force. The Role of learning Technologies in lineage surgical procedure impudent-fashioned research exploitation micro data generally concludes that IT and productivity are related. Indeed, micro data analyses indicated a positive family amidst IT and productivity when official agg regate statistics still pointed towards a â€Å"productivity paradox. Two refreshing-made reviews of plant- or firm-level empirical studies of breeding engineering science (including only when non limited to ready reckoners) and economic performance conclude that the lit shows positive relationships in the midst of schooling engineering and productivity. However, specific estimates of the size of the effect vary widely among studies. How IT makes its impact also mud hard to pinpoint. While micro data provide raw material for crucial analyses, they are non a panacea. Researchers must address meaning(a) challenges when exploitation subsisting micro data to analyze questions about the economic performance of businesses.\r\nSee Z. Griliches, â€Å"productiveness, R&D, and the Data Constraint,” American Economic suss out, Vol. 84 zero(prenominal) 1 ( contact 1994); and Z. Griliches, and J. Mairesse, â€Å"Production functions: The Search for Identification, ” NBER on the descent(p) motif 5067 (March 1995). 3 2 More breeding on these surveys is usable at http://www. census. gov/eos/www/ebusiness614. htm. 63 DIGITAL preservation 2003 THE ROLE OF IT IN PRODUCTIVITYâ€A draft SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE Many late studies map micro data to document and describe the productivity of different kinds of businesses, and to insure its seeds.\r\nThe simple model that suggests productivity growth occurs among all existent plants simply does not fit with what the micro data show. Instead, the micro data show that much of aggregate productivity growth comes about through a much more diversified and dynamic process. Less productive plants go out of business, comparatively productive plants continue, and the parvenu entrants that abide are more productive than either. Micro data research on the effect of IT explores how IT fits into this complex picture of business behavior.\r\nDozens of research papers everyplace the last decade exa mine various views of the relationship between IT and productivity. Two impertinently reviews summarizing the authoritative literature on IT and productivity conclude that at that place is an impact, although there is much vicissitude among studies in the estimated magnitudes of that effect (Dedrick, J. , Gurbaxani, V. , and K. Kraemer, 2003, â€Å" education engineering and Economic execution of instrument: A detailed Review of the Empirical consequence,” ACM Computing Surveys, Vol. 35, No. 1, March and Stiroh, K. J. 2002, â€Å"Reassessing the uphold of IT in the Production Function: A Meta-Analysis,” Federal Reserve Band of invigoratedborn York, November). 4 Dedrick et al. (2003) review over 50 articles published between 1985 and 2002, close to of which are firm-level studies with productivity as the performance measure. They conclude that firmlevel studies show positive relationships, and that gross returns to instruction engine room investments ex ceed returns to an some opposite(prenominal) investments. They warn against last-place that high gross returns mean that plants are under- invest in cultivation engine room.\r\n approximately studies do not countersink for the high obsolescence rate of information technology capital, which lower berths net returns. Also, total investment in information technology whitethorn be understated beca physical exercise most studies measure only estimator hardware, tho not related excavate or software, or be of coinvention, such as re-engineering business processes to take advantage of the rude(a) information technology. Stiroh (2002) reviews twenty recent empirical studies of the relationship between information technology and output and productivity. The studies generally find a positive effect of information technology on output.\r\nHowever, the estimates differ across studies, and the studies differ in umpteen dimensions, including time periods covered and specific estim ation techniques apply. Stiroh looks for predictable make of differences in characteristics of the studies, such as time periods, level of aggregation (e. g. , industry, sector, or entire economy), and estimation techniques. He finds that much of the variation across studies in the estimates of the effect of information technology probably reflects differences in characteristics of the studies. 4\r\nMany of those studies, including some(prenominal) studies discussed in this chapter, were conducted at the focus for Economic Studies (CES) at the U. S. Census Bureau. Appendix 5. A describes both CES, a research unit that conducts research and supports the inevitably of researchers and purpose makers end-to-end government, academia, and business, and some of the major data generators operable there for micro data research on the impact of IT. 64 DIGITAL prudence 2003 Stiroh also reports the findings of additional research he conducts employ a wholeness industry-level databa se to estimate many a(prenominal) of the different equations utilise in the studies he reviewed.\r\nHis research finds that information technology matters, but that even within a single database, estimates of the magnitude of that effect depend on the particular equation that is estimated. closingly, Stiroh notes a potential for publication bias. Beca mathematical function scheme predicts a positive relationship between IT and productivity, researchers may tend to report, and editors may tend to accept for publication, only those papers with the â€Å"right” results on the impact of IT. However, as his research demonstrates, estimates are sensitive to both the data use up and the particular equation that is estimated.\r\nHe concludes that information technology matters, but the wide variation in empirical estimates means that much â€Å"depends on the dilate of the estimation” and â€Å"one must be careful about putting too much weight unit on any given esti mates. ” The conclusion that recent studies show a positive effect of information technology stands in contrast to earlier studies, many of which establish no relationship. Both Dedrick (2003) and Stiroh (2002) note that the outflank data available to beforehand(predicate) researchers suffered from small arche fount sizes, few or no small firms or plants, and overleap of data on information technology investment.\r\nThese data gaps may be why primaeval micro data studies failed to find a relationship between IT and performance. CAUSE AND EFFECT: DOES USING IT keep BUSINESSES MORE PRODUCTIVE? The literature so furthest yields mixed findings on cause and effect between IT and plant-level economic performance. Early research is limited to manufacturing. The runner findings in this area were that more productive plants may be more in all likelihood to invite outdo practices, including new technologies, and that they are able to afford to do so. However, later research suggests that less productive plants may invest in those technologies, perhaps trying to advertize their productivity. 6 modern research expands the scope of outline of the effect of IT in the retail sector. It examines the relationship between investments in information technology and two performance measures for retail firms, productivity and growth in the turning of establishments. The research finds that, in retail, IT is closely related to productivity growth, but not to growth in the number of establishments that retail firms operate. 5 R. H. McGuckin, M. L. Streitwieser, and M. E. Doms, â€Å"The Effect of Technology practice session on Productivity ingathering,” Economic Innovation and bracing Technology Journal, 7 (October 1998). 6 Stolarick Kevin M. , â€Å"Are many steadfasts Better at IT? Differing transactionhips between Productivity and IT Spending,” nucleus for Economic Studies on the job(p) Paper CES-WP-99-13, U. S. Census Bureau, Washington , DC (1999); and B. K. Atrostic, and S. Nguyen, â€Å"IT and Productivity in U. S. Manufacturing: Do Computer Networks Matter,” C bring out for Economic Studies Working Paper CES-02-01, U. S.\r\nBureau of the Census, Washington, DC (2002). M. Doms, R. Jarmin, and S. Klimek, â€Å"IT investiture and Firm Performance in U. S. sell Trade,” Center for Economic Studies Working Paper CES-WP-02-14, U. S. Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC (2002). 7 65 DIGITAL parsimony 2003 Does the Business Environment Matter? â€International Comparisons Although researchers contrive arrange evidence of the effect of IT on productivity at the micro level across many countries, the effect on aggregate productivity and economic growth has varied across countries. This is true even though IT is universally available.\r\nWhile the United States and a few separate economies enjoyed the boom of the late 90s, many European economies experienced sluggish growth. Several explanations ware been put forward including differences in the policy and institutional settings across countries, measurement issues, and time lags (micro data research showed positive effects of IT in the United States before aggregate statistics). Some cede hypothesized that the U. S. economy was able to make more effective use of the new general-purpose technology of IT because its regulatory and institutional environs permits firms to experiment more. An important component of the U. S. bility in this count on is the efficient reallocation of resources away from firms whose experiments in the grocery place fail, to those whose experiments succeed. The OECD’s Growth Project (Box 5. 1) study found evidence that the Schumpeterian processes of churning and creative destruction (or grocery selection) yield greater economic effects in the United States than in other OECD countries. These processes affect aggregate productivity growth as lower productivity firms shrink and exit and high er(prenominal) productivity firms enter and grow. Is it the show window that IT has had a greater impact on business performance in the United States because the U.\r\nS. policy and institutional environment is more conducive to grocery selection and learning? Box 5. 1. OECD International Micro Data Initiative No single solid ground has the resources and technical expertise to independently resolve all the measurement issues and fill all the information gaps associated with quantity the impact of IT. The OECD Growth Project provided a encyclopedic outline of the impact of information and talk technology (ICT) on productivity and economic growth in several OECD countries, using aggregate, industry-level, and plant-level data. Based on that retch’s success, U. S.\r\nCommerce Secretary Evans pass additional micro data research, and provided the OECD with seed money. This new nominate seeks to build on efforts already under way in several OECD member countries. One face t of the OECD micro data project on ICT is a serial publication of multi-national coactions, with a small number of countries problematical in each collaboration. Each class is ontogenesis its testify way of reconciling the differences in each country’s existing micro data that are important to comparative studies, such as the sectors covered, the scope of businesses implyd in each sector, and the specific questions asked.\r\nThe OECD project also seeks explicitly to foster coordination and collaboration on e-business issues between data producers and data users in each country. Project members are from both the OECD’s Statistical Working Party of the Committee on Industry and Business Environment (largely data users rivet on productivity and growth statistics) and the new Working Party on Indicators on the instruction monastic cast (largely producers of statistical indicators). 66 DIGITAL thrift 2003\r\n new research using micro data from the United States and Germany attempts to address this question. 8 The analysis graduation exercise equivalences the differences between various groups (e. g. , young vs. old, or those that invest severely in IT vs. those that do not) of manufacturing establishments within each country. These differences are then examined across the two countries. This allows the researchers to contrast the impact of IT on economic performance between the two countries. The results suggest that U. S. anufacturing establishments benefit more from investing in IT and are more likely to experiment with different ways of conducting business than their German counterparts even by and by controlling for several plant specific factors such as industry, age, size, and so on. Figure 5. 1 summarizes results from an analysis of the impact of changing technologies on productivity outcomes. For the analysis, businesses undergoing an installing of high investment are assumed to be actively changing their technology. Manufact urers in both countries were separate according to investment intensity as defined by investment per character reference player.\r\nThe researchers examined investment in both general and IT-specific equipment. The core comparison group had no investment. The other two groupsâ€with investment in any equipment, and investment in IT equipmentâ€were split into â€Å"high” and â€Å"low” investment groups at the 75th percentile of the investment intensity distributions. Plants with â€Å"high” investment intensities were those with intensities exceeding at least 75 percent of all other investing plants. These computations were done for both overall investment in equipment (excluding expressions) and for IT equipment, giving a combined seven investment intensity categories.\r\nBusinesses undergoing an episode of high investment intensity can be thought of as actively changing their technologies. The market will reinforcing stimulus some of these and punish others. The crux of the analysis summarized in Figure 5. 1 is to first compare the performance of plants across the various investment intensity groups to a baseline of firms with no investment within each country (i. e. , the bars for the listed investment intensity categories in the figure represent the percent difference from the omitted cypher investment category for each country).\r\nThen the researchers compared the within country differences across the United States and Germany to see in which country the reward for experimentation (as measured by high investment episodes) is highest. display board A shows that U. S. businesses that invest heavily, both overall and in IT, are much more productive than those that invest little or none at all. The same holds true for Germany, but the productivity premium is much higher in the United States. Panel B shows that U. S. businesses that invest heavily (i. e. are experimenting with new technologies) commence more varied productivi ty outcomes as measured by the stock deviation than do firms that invest little or not at all. This is not the case in Germany. In fact, the German data show that firms that invest intensively have less varied productivity outcomes. This is consistent with the notion that the U. S. policy and institutional environment is more conducive to market experimentation. These results should be viewed with caveat as they relate to only two countries and there are many factors the researchers do not control for. 8 J.\r\nHaltiwanger, R. Jarmin, and T. Schank, â€Å"Productivity, enthronement in ICT and Market experiment: Micro Evidence from Germany and the U. S. ,” Center for Economic Studies Working Paper CES-03-06, U. S. Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC (2003). 67 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 Figure 5. 1. Differences in Productivity Outcomes between Germany and the United States Panel A: U. S. Firms Investing hard in IT and separate smashing Have higher(prenominal) Productivity Prem iums 100% % Difference in dream up Productivity Relative to Group with No Investment U. S. 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% base / 0\r\nGermany High / 0 commencement / suffering embarrassed / High High / Low High / High Investment Intensity (Equipment / IT) Panel B: U. S. Firms Investing Heavily in IT and Other Capital Experience More Varied Productivity Outcomes 50% U. S. % Difference in Standard going away of Productivity Relative to Group with No Investment Germany 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% -10% -20% -30% -40% Low / 0 High / 0 Low / Low Low / High High / Low High / High Investment Intensity (Equipment / IT) preeminence: Differences are in logs and are shown relative to a reference group of firm with zero total investment.\r\nSource: Haltiwanger, Jarmin and Schank 2003. DOES IT MATTER HOW IT IS USED? Businesses in the United States have utilise IT for fifty years. Originally, firms that used IT may have had advantage over competitors who did not. But today, simply investing in IT may no monthlong be copious. The question for economic performance is no longer whether IT is used, but how it is used. 68 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 Figure 5. 2. Computer Networks Were Common in U. S. Manufacturing Industries in 1999, But Sophisticated Network Software Was not 100 90 80 70 60\r\nPlants with Networks Employment at Plants with Networks Plants with Fully Integrated opening move Resource Planning Software Percent 50 40 30 20 10 0 G ts ts s s s s s o t es ry ts s al em ic d ru bb er pr od l ts ill re ts uc rie ou en al ill ts ts rie uc te pe uc cc ts N ne uc uc RI iti pm od ne ba tm od st pa uc uc et TU od od Pa la st od tiv hi od od du du pr re lla ac til uc pr to Ap pr ui †ac pr pr od m e FA C od in ce an Te x ar eq al od M W oo 32 al d an d im is al c d s 5 Ch pr in pr d †d d 2 pr y uc m uc ts d s r pr lie ni Fo er te od 31 U et te †n od M co an d †t, tio tro e Pr AN in la m al la 3 e go en go 33 til m re ra rta 31 †ec ed M m Te x le 31 v e nd 1 9 1 1 d lic el 33 e d re 32 Pl as tic s ††3 †32 po ra 33 ab an an bl AL nd qu ns ra ur he et br re g du ra le Tr a itu 31 m tin at D on Le ca te on rn 31 †in pu tri N 6 Fu 2 Pr N †Pe †tro Fa 2 le †4 um Be al ic †ec 33 m 33 6 †††31 †Co El 7 3 4 32 4 33 33 5 33 †NAICS 3-Digit Industry Source: Atrostic, B. K. and J. Gates, 2001, â€Å"U. S. Productivity and Electronic Business Processes in Manufacturing,” CES-WP-01-11, Center for Economic Studies, U. S. Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC.\r\n clean data from the 1999 Computer Network Use Supplement (CNUS) to the 1999 Annual Survey of Manufactures (ASM) are beginning to be used to model how manufacturing plants use computer networks in the United States. Respondents’ answers to questions about processes can be linked to the information the same respondents reported on unfaltering ASM survey forms, such as the value of shipments, employment, and prod uct class shipments. Figure 5. 2 presents researchers’ estimates of the diffusion of computer networks. The research finds that computer networks are widely piano within manufacturing, with networks at about half of all plants.\r\nThe share of employment at plants with networks is roughly identical in durable and non-durable manufacturing. Use of networks varies a great deal within those sub-sectors; the share of plants with networks ranges from lows of about 30 percent to highs of about 70 percent. The CNUS also provides new information about some aspects of how plants use computer networks. Figure 5. 2 reports estimates of the diffusion of fully corporate enterprise resource planning software (FIERP); that is, the kind of software that colligate different kinds of applications (such as inventory, tracking, and payroll) within and across businesses.\r\nPlants in all manufacturing industries use this complex software. However, FEIRP software remains relatively rare compar ed to computer networks. While about half of all manufacturing plants have networks, fewer than 10 percent have this kind of software. 69 32 32 †32 7 6 †an at ip L 5 †s DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 Initial research finds that computer networks have a positive and of import effect on plant’s labor productivity. After accounting for quadruplicate factors of production and plant characteristics, productivity is about five percent higher in plants with networks. When economic characteristics in prior periods and investment in computers are also accounted for, there continues to be a positive and statistically significant relationship between computer networks and U. S. manufacturing plant productivity. 10 These initial findings for the United States are consistent with findings for other countries. Recent research for Canada, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom, for example, all find positive relationships between using computer networks and productivity. 11 Research for Japan finds that computer expenditures and computer networks both alter productivity between 1990 and 2001.\r\nIn more recent years, the effects are larger, but they also vary much more among industries. 12 Some micro data research for the United States during the 1990s suggests that IT needs to be used together with worker schooling and revised workplace practices to yield productivity gains. These findings are based on data containing detailed information about the use of computers in the workplace. They also contain information rarely available in other sources on the employers’ management and worker training policies. 3 Research for Australia and Canada, previously cited, also finds that returns to IT are intertwined with the use of R&D, innovation, and changes in workplace practices and organization. This line of research suggests that IT is important, but that it makes its impact when accompanied by changes in other factors and practices. IS THE IMPACT OF IT THE SAME FOR ALL KINDS OF IT, all over? â€EVIDENCE FROM STUDIES OF MARKET STRUCTURE IT was widely pass judgment to alter the structure of markets. The direction, however, was unclear.\r\nLower information costs energy make it easier for smaller businesses to collect, analyze, and use information and so allow them to enter distant markets or compete more effectively with larger firms. At the same time, the lower information costs might make it easier for larger businesses 9 Atrostic and Nguyen (2002). 10 Atrostic and Nguyen, â€Å"The match Of Computer Investment And Computer Network Use On Productivity,” paper presented NBER-CRIW Conference on â€Å"Hard-to-Measure Goods and work: Essays in Memory of Zvi Griliches,” Washington, DC (September 2003). J. Baldwin, and D.\r\nSabourin, â€Å"Impact of the borrowing of Advanced Information and Communication Technologies on Firm Performance in the Canadian Manufacturing Sector,” Research Paper Series, 174, Ana lytical Studies Branch, Statistics Canada (October 2001) present findings for Canada. E. Bartlesman, G. van Leeuwen, and H. R. Nieuwenhuijsen, â€Å"Advanced Manufacturing Technology and Firm Performance in the Netherlands,” Netherlands Official Statistics, Vol. 11 (Autumn 1996) present findings for the Netherlands. C. Criscuolo and K. Waldron, â€Å"e-Commerce use and firm productivity,” Economic Trends (November 2003) present findings for the United Kingdom.\r\nK. Motohashi, â€Å"Firm level analysis of information network use and productivity in Japan,” presented at the conference on Comparative Analysis of enterprisingness (micro) Data, London (September 2003). S. Black, and L. Lynch, â€Å"How to Compete: The Impact of Workplace Practices and Information Technology on Productivity,” Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 83 No. 3 ( rattling(a) 2001); and D. Neumark and P. Cappelli, â€Å"Do ‘High Performance’ Work Practices Improve E stablishment-Level Outcomes? ” Industrial and exertion Relations Review (July 2001). 13 12 11 70 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 to retain a combative advantage.\r\nSimilarly, use of the network might make it easier for consumers to compare prices, and so lead to a reduction in prices for products sold on-line or in â€Å"bricks and mortar” establishments. At the same time, a firm grammatical construction an on-line sales-based business may incur costs that brick and mortar businesses might not, such as cost associated with having inventories available for immediate delivery anywhere in the United States (or the world). The issues are scarcely settled. In this section, selected examples from micro data research illustrate IT’s varied nature and complex economic effects.\r\nhauling A series of studies make use of public-use truck-level data from the Census’ Vehicle Inventory and Use Surveys to examine how IT has unnatural the trucking industry. Each of these stu dies indicates the importance of knowing not just that IT is used, but also the details of the IT and how it is used. These studies examine the impact of two classes of on-board computers (OBCs). Standard OBCs function as trucks’ â€Å"black boxes,” recording how set outrs operate the trucks. These enable dispatchers to ascertain how truck drivers drive.\r\nAdvanced OBCs also contain capabilities that, among other things, allow dispatchers to determine where trucks are in real time and communicate schedule changes to drivers while drivers are out on the road. These move capabilities financial aid dispatchers make and implement break down scheduling decisions, and help them block situations where trucks and drivers are idle, awaiting their next haul. One of these studies assesses OBCs’ impact on productivity by estimating how much they have append individual trucks’ example rate, as measured by their loaded miles during the time they are in service . 4 It finds that advanced OBCs have increased truck utilization by 13 percent among trucks that adopt them; overall, this effect implies a three percent increase in capacity utilization industry-wide, which translates to about $16 zillion in annual benefits. The vast majority of this increase comes from trucks in the for-hire, long-haul segment of the industry, and most of these returns only began to hang years after trucking firms first began to adopt OBCs. In contrast, the study finds no evidence that measuring rod OBCs have led to increased truck utilization.\r\nCombined, these results indicate not just the magnitude of IT’s impact on productivity in the industry but also its nature and timing. IT adoption has led to large productivity gains due to advanced OBCs’ real-time communication capabilities, which enable trucking firms to ensure that trucks operating outlying(prenominal) from their base are on the road and loaded. These gains, however, appear to have l agged adoption by several years. The other two studies examine how OBCs have affected how the industry is organized. One study investigates how OBCs affect whether shippers use intragroup fleets or for-hire carriers to ship goods. 5 This study finds that the different classes of OBCs have different effects on this T. Hubbard, 2003, â€Å"Information, Decisions, and Productivity: On-Board Computers and Capacity Utilization in Trucking,” American Economic Review, September. G. Baker and T. Hubbard, â€Å"Make Versus Buy in Trucking: Asset possession, Job Design, and Information,” American Economic Review, Vol. 93 No. 3 (June 2003). 15 14 71 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 decision. The diffusion of standard OBCs has tended to increase shippers’ use of internal fleets, but the diffusion of advanced OBCs has tended to increase their use of for-hire fleets.\r\nThis implies that IT-enabled reformments in monitoring drivers have led shippers to integrate more into trucking, but IT-enabled improvements in scheduling capabilities have led to more contracting-out of trucking. This authoritative difference indicates that whether IT tends to lead to larger, more integrated firms or to smaller, more focused firms depends critically on the new capabilities the IT provides. The second of the two organizational studies is similar: it investigates how OBCs have affected whether drivers own the trucks they operate. 6 Traditionally, â€Å"owner-operators” have been an important part of the industry. An advantage associated with owner-operators is that they have strong incentives to drive in ways that preserve their trucks’ value; these incentives have traditionally been far weaker for â€Å"company drivers,” who do not own their trucks. This study shows that OBC diffusion has diminished the use of owner-operators. By allowing firms to monitor how drivers drive, OBCs have eliminated an important incentive advantage of owneroperators, and have le d trucking firms to rent out fewer hauls out to such individuals.\r\nResidential solid Estate The mesh vastly increases the amount of information on housing vacancies that is readily available to consumers. former research had shown that high costs of information and lack of vex to information limited housing searches. The trump information available to consumers tended to be for properties near their current location. In addition, research found that information intermediaries such as real estate agents functiond the options that consumers considered. The increased information that the lucre makes available to consumers potentially reduces or eliminates those limits.\r\nConsumers can readily learn about properties far from their current locations, and can do so relatively straightway (there still may be some influence exerted in how nett sites are set up, for example, and consumers may not immediately, or ever, get to the go around web site for their needs). Two recent s tudies use micro data to assess the effect of using the internet to search for housing. In these cases, micro data from the public-use la strain Population Survey provide basic information on what kinds of consumers use the Internet to search for housing. However, the hertz does not have information about the homes that Internet users purchased.\r\nTo address questions about the kinds of homes purchased, the researchers surveyed a sample of recent home purchasers in a county in jointure Carolina. Characteristics of buyers who used the Internet as a source of information about housing vacancies were generally similar to those of buyers who only used conventional information sources, but that Internet users were younger. The researchers conclude that using the Internet to betray for housing does not seem to effect geographic search patterns, or to lead consumers to pay lower prices for comparable homes.\r\nAlthough using the Internet might be expected to decrease the number of h omes buyers visited, because they would have more information about the houses and neighborhoods, the studies G. Baker and T. Hubbard, â€Å"Contractibility and Asset Ownership: On-Board Computers and governance in U. S. Trucking,” http://gsbwww. uchicago. edu/fac/thomas. hubbard/research/papers/paper_424. pdf (April 2003). 16 72 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 instead find that homebuyers who use the Internet as an information source make personal visits to more houses. 7 The Impact of IT on salarys Do â€Å"knowledge workers” induce prosecute premiums because they use computers? Does the use of IT increase the get hold of for more-educated workers? Does the growing use of computers by workers in some sectors of the economy explain shifts in the distribution of earnings? Initial micro data research answered the first question with a resounding â€Å"yes. ” One early study, for example, found that the pay of workers who used computers was 10 to 15 percent higher than the pay of similar workers who did not. 8 However, more recent studies that make use of more detailed information about workers and jobs over fivefold periods find that the answer is more nuanced. IT potentially affects many aspects of the performance of businesses. It also may affect the takings, and other characteristics of jobs. Asking how IT affects charters is actually asking two questions. The first question is whether jobs where workers use computers pay higher wages. If the answer is yes, the second question is why. As with IT use in businesses, determining cause and effect of IT use on wages is hard.\r\nThe jobs might pay higher wages because they require high skill levels. Some IT-using jobs, such as computer programmers and systems analysts, clearly require high skill levels, as do jobs such as architects who use computer-assisted design programs. However, computers appear end-to-end many workplaces. Workers may use computerized diagnostic equipment and programmable l ogical system controllers, for example, in production applications. Office and service workers may use word processors and spreadsheets, e-mail, computerized billing systems, and so forth.\r\nSuch jobs might pay higher wages if using a computer makes a worker with a given skill level more productive, but they generally do not require the workers to know much about principles of programming, or system or network design. Finally, the use of IT may allow computers to rest period for low-skilled workers performing repetitive tasks. Micro data studies in the United States, Europe, and Canada all find that workers using computers at work have much higher wages than workers who do not. The difference typically is on the order of 10 to 20 percent.\r\nHowever, these studies all used data from a single period, and many of them lack information about other aspects of the job, the worker, and the employer. This makes it hard to determine whether the workers have higher wages because they use a computer, or because important unobserved characteristics of the employer (is it highly productive heedless of the use of computers? ) or the worker (is the worker already highly skilled before using a computer? ) may affect managers’ decisions on investing in computers and R. Palm and M.\r\nDanis, â€Å"Residential Mobility: The Impacts of Web-Based Information on the Search Process and Spatial Housing filling Patterns,” Urban Geography, Vol. 22, No. 7 (2001); and R. Palm and M. Danis, â€Å"The Internet and Home Purchase,” Journal of Economic and Social Geography, Vol. 93, No. 5 (2002). A. Krueger, â€Å"How Computers Have Changed the Wage Structure: Evidence from Microdata, 1984â€1989,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 108 No. 1 (February 1993). 18 17 73 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 assigning them to which employees. A new study reviewing recent research on the impact of IT on employment, skills, and wages concludes that the taradiddle is complex. 9 Studies find that having information on plant characteristics and work practices matters. For example, a study finding that workers using computers in Germany had higher wages than workers who did not also found that a similar wage derived function accrued to workers using telephones or pencils, or who worked posing down. 20 The implication is that the wage differential rightfully reflected the fact that workers using computers, telephones, or pencils, or who work sitting down, apprehend higher wages because they have higher skills.\r\nThis research suggests that IT is associated with substantial wage differentials, but does not cause them. Studies for France and Canada find similar wage differentials. 21 Researchers using French and Canadian micro data also have matched sets of data on employers and workers in those countries, and have two or more years of data. Studies using these matched data all find that substantial cross-section returns to computer use fall sharply when t hey make use of information about changes in both the worker and employer characteristics.\r\nEstimates differ by country and study, but the final differentials are modest, 1 to 4 percent. 22 These studies also find that the relatively modest wage differential associated with computer use varies markedly across occupations and among workers with different levels of education. For example, a study for Canada finds that more highly educated workers, white-collar workers, and those adopting the computer for scientific applications receive higher than average wage premiums, while other workers do not receive wage premiums when they start using computers on the job. The springs for such differences remain unresolved.\r\nIt may be more dearly-won to teach some groups of workers to use computers, or groups may differ in the proportion of computer training costs that they share with the employer (with lower employer shares resulting in higher wages). The researchers find that controlling for training increases the small or zero wage premiums they otherwise find for many low-skilled groups. They speculate that, if appropriate data were available to test for long-run effects, controlling for training and other worker characteristics might show positive wage differentials for most workers using computers. 3 Some detailed case studies (studies of specific businesses, usually anonymous) suggest another reason for differences in the wage differential associated with using computers at work. One M. Handel, â€Å"Implications of Information Technology for Employment, Skills, and Wages: A Review of Recent Research,” SRI International, SRI Project Number P10168, Final Report (July 2003). J. DiNardo and J. Pischke, â€Å"The Returns to Computer Use Revisited: Have Pencils Changed the Wage Structure Too? ” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 112 No. 1 (February 1997). H. Entorf, M. Gollac, and F.\r\nKramarz, â€Å"New Technologies, Wages, and Worker Selectio n. ” Journal of agitate Economics (1999), and H. Entorf, and F. Kramarz, â€Å"Does Unmeasured Ability Explain the higher(prenominal) Wages of New Technology Workers? ” European Economic Review, Vol. 41 (1997); and C. Zoghi and S. Pabilonia, â€Å"Which Workers Gain from Computer Use? ” Paper presented at NBER Summer Meetings (July 2003). 22 23 21 20 19 E. g. , Entorf and Kramarz 1997. C. Zoghi and S. Pabilonia 2003. 74 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 case study examined the effect of introducing computers into the operations of a financial organization.\r\nFor some occupations, the case study found that computers substitute for the routine work that individuals previously performed, trim the need for such workers. In other occupations, however, computers appear to take on routine tasks and free workers to perform more complex, higher skilled, problem-solving activities. 24 If IT also allows the business to alter the way it works and organize itself more productively, it may raise the skill requirements for all workers in the business, even if they do not directly use computers.\r\nInsights from the International Micro Data Initiative A wave of new literature in plant- or firm-level research on the effects of IT has been conducted in countries take part in the OECD. 25 (See box 5. 1. ) As with research using U. S. micro data, the micro data research conducted in other countries also find links between IT and productivity. Where information on computer networks is available, or other measures of how computers are used, the research again suggests that it is not just having IT, but how IT is used that effects economic performance measures such as productivity.\r\nTwo kinds of studies are being undertaken. Some studies base their research on new data on IT for a single country. They make use of as much information as they can, and choose empirical techniques best conform to to their data. Studies such as these contribute important insights, speciall y when one country has information that other countries do not, or researchers are able to use techniques that help ensure that the measured effects indeed are due to IT. However, this strength also makes it hard to compare such estimates across countries.\r\nStudies from individual OECD countries find that IT has an impact on productivity and economic performance. Significant effects of IT on productivity are found in the service sector in Germany. 26 Recent research for France finds that one specific kind of network, the Internet, is associated with productivity gains, but other kinds of networks, which have been in use much longer, are not. 27 Canadian research finds that adopting IT is associated with growth in both productivity and market share. 8 Use of computers in Australia also is associated with productivity growth, with effects that vary across industries and are intertwined with other factors, such as the skill of a business’ work force, its organization and re-or ganization, and its innovativeness. 29 24 D. Autor, F. bill and R. Murnane, â€Å"Upstairs, Downstairs: Computer-Skill Complementarity and Computer-Labor Substitution on Two Floors of a Large Bank,” Industrial & Labor Relations Review 55(3) (2002). Research to date is summarized in D.\r\nPilat, ICT and Economic Growth: Evidence from OECD Countries, Industries, and Firms (Paris: OECD, 2003). T. Hempell, â€Å"What’s Spurious, What’s Real? metre the Productivity Impacts of ICT at the Firm-Level,” Discussion Paper 02-42, centerfield for European Economic Research (Zentrum fur Europaische Wirtschaftsforschung GmbH; ZEW, 2002), FTP://ftp. zew. de/pub/zew-docs/dp/dp0242. pdf. B. Crepon, T. Heckel, and N. Riedinger, http://www. nber. org/CRIW/papers/crepon. pdf, Paper presented at â€Å"R&D, Education, and Productivity,” NBER CRIW conference in honor of Zvi Griliches (Paris: August 2003). 8 29 27 26 25 J. Baldwin and D. Sabourin 2001. G. Gre tton, J. Gali, and D. Parham, â€Å"Uptake and impacts of ICTs in the Australian economy,” paper presented at OECD, Paris, December 2002. 75 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 other group of studies tries to use as many variables and analytical techniques as possible that are similar to those used by researchers in a few other countries. 30 This arise may exclude some variables and some analytical techniques, if researchers in several countries cannot use them.\r\nOn the other hand, this kind of coordination makes it more likely that similar empirical findings are actually due to IT, and that differences in empirical findings are due to differences in economic conditions and other factors among countries. An example is a group of researchers conducting parallel analyses for the United States, Denmark, and Japan. 31 Preliminary findings are that IT is positively related to productivity in all three countries, but that the relationship depends on the type of IT used, the sector, and time p eriod.\r\nEarly results for Denmark show a significant correlation between several measures of the firm’s performance and use of the Internet, but not for other uses of IT. For Japan, productivity levels are consistently higher for firms using IT networks. However, growth in labor productivity varies by type of network and how the network is used, and the effect of Internet use is higher for retail trade firms than for manufacturing firms. For U. S. manufacturing plants, there is a strong relationship between use of computer networks and labor productivity. Better Micro Data Research Requires Better Micro Data\r\nBecause the micro data are typically collected for other purposes, such as constructing key economic indicators, we almost always find that they lack some (often, much) of the information needed to address questions such those about the pervasiveness of IT and its effect. These gaps simply do not allow us to piss firm conclusions about the effect of IT. For example, research exploring the micro-level link between IT and economic performance may not always be able to separate the role of IT from other related but unobserved characteristics of the plant.\r\nWell-managed plants may use IT as one of many tools to fulfill performance goals. If we have information about IT, but not about management practices, the research may attribute performance effects to IT that really are due to good management. Estimating plant-level relationships among computers, computer networks, and productivity also is hard to do with existing data because many of the most important conceptionsâ€what a business produces (output), and all the factors it uses to make its product (such as labor, capital, energy, etc. cognise as â€Å"inputs”), as well as IT itselfâ€are difficult to define, and data based on these concepts are hard to collect. 32 Continuing research on these concepts leads to improve- For example, researchers in several countries are using the approach taken by U. S. researchers (Atrostic and Nguyen 2002), and using its findings as the benchmark against which they are comparing research findings using their own countries’ data. B. K. Atrostic, P. Boegh-Nielsen, K. Motohashi, and S. Nguyen, â€Å"Information Technology, Productivity, and Growth in Enterprises: Evidence from New International Micro Data,” L’acutalite economique (forthcoming 2004).\r\nA large literature lays out major data gaps in estimating the impact of information technology on economic performance. For example, conferences conducted by the NBER Conference on Research in Income and Wealth (CRIW) addressing capital and labor measurement over the last 20 years include D. Usher, The meter of Capital (NBER CRIW Volume 45 (Chicago University cut, 1980)); J. Triplett, The Measurement of Labor Cost (NBER CRIW Volume 48 (Chicago University Press, 1983)); and C. Corrado, J. Haltiwanger, and D. Sichel, Measuring Capital in the New 32 31 0 7 6 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 ments in what statistical agencies collect, but a dynamic and evolving economy continually presents new challenges. Even when concepts are well defined, it is pricy for statistical agencies to collect data and for respondents to provide the requested information. As a result, some key information needed for analysis may not be collected often or at all. Examples include information such as the number of computers and computer networks that businesses have, how they use them, and how much businesses invest in computers and other IT.\r\nThe divergent findings in the resulting empirical literature on the effects of IT are likely related to these data gaps, and to differences in the techniques researchers use to try to deal with them. 33 One way to improve the micro data available for research would be by better integrating aggregate economic indicators and their underlying micro data. It currently is not always easy to go down movements in the aggregate statisti cs with changes observed in the micro data. Aggregate indicators often are constructed from multiple micro data sources, and different sources of data for any concept (such as employment or payroll) may disagree.\r\n amass more of the data underlying aggregate statistics in ways that enrich their value as micro data, such as using common take frames and keeping information that allows linkage of same economic unit over time and across surveys, would improve both the micro data and our ability to meet changes in the aggregate economic indicators. Conclusion Micro data research conducted in the United States and in OECD countries shows that IT is related to economic performance and productivity. Careful research also shows that the relationships are complex.\r\nIT emerges as a sundry(a) factor. The kind of IT that is used and how it is used appear to matter in many (but not all) settings, including the ownership structure of trucking markets, the relative dynamism of retailing, and the relative jeopardy taking and innovativeness of manufacturing sectors across countries. At the same time, the use of IT alone does not appear to be enough to affect economic performance. When researchers have information about the characteristics of businesses, workers, jobs, and markets, they find that IT appears to work instead in bicycle-built-for-two with those factors.\r\nEconomy (NBER CRIW Volume 65 (Chicago University Press, forthcoming)). A series of meetings of international experts, known as the â€Å"Canberra Group,” intercommunicate capital measurement issues during the late 1990s (http:// unstats. un. org/unsd/methods/citygroup/capitalstock. htm). An refined manual describing how to calculate productivity devoted considerable text to issues in measuring capital can be found in P. Schreyer, Measuring Productivity: Measurement of Aggregate and Industry-Level Productivity Growthâ€OECD manual(a) (Paris: OECD 2001).\r\nMeasuring intangible capital, potent ially important in both IT and non-IT capital, received much attention tardily (see for example B. Lev, Intangibles: Management, Measurement, and Reporting (Brookings Institution Press: 2001)). 33 See, for example, Dedrick et al. (2003); D. Pilat, 2003; B. K. Atrostic, J. Gates, and R. Jarmin, 2000, â€Å"Measuring the Electronic Economy: Current office and Next Steps,” Working Paper CES-WP-00-10, Center for Economic Studies, U. S. Bureau of the Census, Washington DC; and J. Haltiwanger, and R.\r\nJarmin (2000), â€Å"Measuring the digital Economy,” in E. Byrnjolfsson and B. Kahin (eds. ), Understanding the Digital Economy (MIT Press 2000). 77 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 Separating out the effect of IT remains difficult because the analysis requires detailed information, and requires it for multiple periods. However, such detailed and repeated information is rare. Most business micro data contain only the information needed to calculate important economic indicators. The mi cro data are most slight for the sectors outside manufacturingâ€the most IT-intensive sectors.\r\nMore definitive research on the impact of IT requires that producing micro data sets becomes a statistical agency priority. 78 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 Appendix 5. A. Conducting Micro Data Research on the Impact of IT THE CENTER FOR ECONOMIC STUDIES, U. S. CENSUS office staff The Center for Economic Studies (CES) is a research unit of the Office of the Chief Economist, U. S. Bureau of the Census, established to abet and support the analytic needs of researchers and decision makers throughout government, academia, and business. CES currently operates eight Research Data Centers (RDCs) throughout the United States.\r\nRDCs offer qualified researchers restricted access to confidential economic data collected by the Census Bureau in its surveys and censuses. CES and the RDCs conduct, facilitate, and support research using micro data to increase the advantage and quality of Census Bureau data products. The best way for the Census Bureau to assess the quality of the data it collects, edits, and tabulates is for knowledgeable researchers to use micro records in rigorous analyses. Each micro record results from slews of decisions about definitions, classifications, coding rocedures, processing rules, editing rules, apocalypse rules, and so on. Analyses test the validity of all these decisions and reveal the data’s strengths and weaknesses. Research projects at CES and its RDCs are examining how facets of the electronic economy affect productivity, growth, business organization, and other aspects of business performance using both new data collected specifically to provide new information about IT, and existing data. Projects using existing Census Bureau micro data on businesses include McGuckin et al. 998; Dunne, Foster, Haltiwanger and Troske, 2000; Stolarick 1999; and Doms, Jarmin, and Klimek, 2002). Research making use of the new 1999 supplement to the Ann ual Survey of Manufactures linked to existing Census Bureau micro data include Atrostic and Gates 2001; Atrostic and Nguyen 2002; Haltiwanger, Jarmin, and Schank 2002; and Bartelsman et al. 2002. Research findings from many of these projects are discussed in this chapter. The research also helps the Census Bureau assess what current data collections can say about the electronic economy so that we can more efficiently allocate resources to any new measurement activities.\r\nMore information about CES, RDCs, requirements for access to data, and examples of research produced at the RDCs is at http://www. ces. census. gov/ces. php/home. DATA SOURCES AT CES Researchers at CES and the RDCs built, and use, a longitudinal data set linking manufacturing plants over time. The data are based on surveys and economic censuses, and contain detailed data on shipments and factors used to produce them, such as materials and labor, as well as characteristics of the plant, such as whether it exports. Recent CES research broadens the range of available micro data beyond manufacturing.\r\nA new micro data set, the Longitudinal Business Database, currently contains the universe of all U. S. business establishments with paid employees from 1976 to present. It allows researchers to examine entry and exit, gross job flows, and changes in the structure of the U. S. economy. The LBD can be used alone or in conjunction with other Census Bureau surveys at the establishment 79 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 and firm level. In addition, micro data from surveys and censuses of the retail, wholesale, and some service sectors is now fit available.\r\nThe subject area Employer Survey, conducted by the Census Bureau for the National Center on the Educational Quality of the Workforce, collects detailed information about work practices, worker training, and the use of computers. Restricted access to confidential data from the survey is available to qualified researchers through the RDCs. Information about the National Employer Survey can be found at http://www. census. gov/econ/overview/mu2400. html. PUBLIC-USE DATA This chapter also refers to research conducted using two other sets of micro data collected by the Census Bureau.\r\nThe Current Population Survey (CPS) is a survey of households that is collected by the Census Bureau for the Bureau of Labor Statistics. The CPS periodically collects information about people’s use of computers at work and at home. More information can be found at http://www. census. gov/ community/www/socdemo/computer. html. The Truck Inventory and Use Surveys collect information about on-board trip computers and electronic fomite management systems as part of the Census of Transportation. Information about the Census of Transportation can be found at http://www. census. gov/econ/www/tasmenu. html. 80\r\n'